Company law

Read the text quickly, then match these phrases (a-f) with the paragraphs (1-5).

a. management roles

b. company definition

c. company health

d. partnership definition

e. company formation

1. A company is a business association which has the character of a legal person, distinct from its officers and shareholders. This is significant, as it allows the company to own property in its own name, continue perpetually despite changes in ownership, and insulate the owners against personal liability. However, in some instances, for example when the company is used to perpetrate fraud or acts ultra vires, the court may lift the corporate veil and subject the shareholders to personal liability.

2. By contrast, a partnership is a business association which, strictly speaking, is not considered to be a legal entity but, rather, merely an association of owners. However, in order to avoid impractical results, such as the partnership being precluded from owning property in its own name, certain rules of partnership law treat a partnership as if it were a legal entity.

Nonetheless, partners are not insulated against personal liability, and the partnership may cease to exist upon a change in ownership, for example, when one of the partners dies.

3. A company is formed upon the issuance of a Certificate of Incorporation by the appropriate governmental authority. A certificate of incorporation is issued upon the filing of the constitutional documents of the company, together with statutory forms and the payment of a filing fee. The 'constitution' of a company consists of two documents. One, the memorandum of association, states the objects of the company and the details of its authorised capital, otherwise known as the nominal capital. The second document, the articles of associations, contains provisions for the internal management of the company, for example, shareholders' annual general meetings, or AGMs, and extraordinary general meetings, the board of directors, corporate contracts and loans.

4. The management of a company is carried out by its officers, who include a director and manager. A director is appointed to carry out and control the day-to-day affairs of the company. The structure, procedures and work of the board of directors, which as a body govern the company, are determined by the company's articles of association. A manager is delegated supervisory control of the affairs of the company. A manager's duties to the company are generally more burdensome than those of the employees, who basically owe a duty of confidentiality to the company. A company's auditors are appointed at general meetings. The auditors do not owe a duty to the company as a legal entity, but, rather, to the shareholders, to whom the auditor's report is addressed.

5. Finally, a company's state of health is reflected in its accounts, including its balance sheet and profit-and-loss account. Healthy profits might lead to a bonus or capitalisation issue to the shareholders. On the other hand, continuous losses may result in insolvency and the company going into liquidation.

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