Cytology. Embryology.

Cytology

1. Subject and tasks of cytology, its importance in the system of biological and medical sciences.

2. The main thesises of the cell theory at the present stage of the development of science. The concept of a cell as the basic unit of living organism.

3. General plan of the structure of eukaryotic cells: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus. Non-cellular structures as derivatives of cells. The relationship between the shape and size of cells with their functional specialization.

4. Biological membrane as the basis of cell structure. Structure, basic properties and functions. The concept of cell compartmentalization and its functional significance.

5. Cell membrane. Outer cell membrane. Structural and chemical features. Characteristics of the supramembrane layer (glycocalyx) and submembrane (cortical) layer. Morphological characteristics and mechanisms of barrier, receptor and transport functions. The relationship of the plasma membrane of the supra- and submembrane layers of the cell membrane in the process of functioning. Structural and chemical mechanisms of cell interaction.

6. Specialized structures of the cell membrane: microvilli, cilia, basal basal infoldings. Their structure and function. General characteristics of intercellular interactions. Classification.

7. Intercellular junctions (contacts): simple contacts, adhering junctions, tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions (nexuses), synaptic junctions (synapses).

8. Hyaloplasm. Physical and chemical properties, chemical composition. Participation in cellular metabolism.

9. Organelles. Definition, classification. Organelles of general and special significance. Membranous and non-membranous organelles.

General organelles:

Membranous organelles.

10. Endoplasmic reticulum. The structure and function of the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Structural features depending on the specificity of metabolic processes in the cell.

11. Golgi complex. Structure and functions. Its role in the performance of secretory functions by glandular cells, in the chemical modification of incoming proteins. Significance in the interaction of membranous structures.

12. Lysosomes. Structure, chemical composition, functions. The concept of lysosomes, proteosomes, endosomes, autophagosomes and heterophagosomes.

13. Peroxisomes. Structure, chemical composition, functions.

14. Mitochondria. Structure, functions. The concept of the autonomous system of protein synthesis. Features of the mitochondrial apparatus in cells with different levels of bioenergetic processes.

Non-membranous organelles:

15. Ribosomes. Structure, chemical composition, functions. The concept of polysomes. The role of free and membrane-bound eudoplasmic reticulum ribosomes in the biosynthesis of cellular proteins.

16. Centrioles. Structure and function in the non-dividing nucleus and during mitosis. Fibrillar structures of the cytoplasm.

17. Cytoskeleton. The main components of the cytoskeleton: microtubules, microfilaments, tonofilaments (intermediate filaments). Their structure, chemical composition.

Organelles of special significance:

18. Myofibrils, microvilli, cilia, flagella. The structure and functional significance in cells that perform special functions.

19. Inclusions. Definition. Classification. Significance in the life of cells and the body. The structure and chemical composition of various types of inclusions.

20. Nucleus. The role of the nucleus in the storage and transmission of genetic information and in protein synthesis. The shape and number of nuclei. The concept of the nuclear cytoplasmic relation. General plan of the structure of the interphase nucleus: chromatin, nucleolus, nuclear envelope, karyoplasm (nucleoplasm).

21. Karyoplasm (nucleoplasm). Physical and chemical properties, chemical composition. Significance in the vital activity of the nucleus.

22. Chromatin. Structure and chemical composition. Structural and chemical characteristics of chromatin fibrils, perichromatin fibrils, perichromatin and interchromatin granules. The role of basic and acidic proteins in structuring and in the regulation of metabolic activity of chromatin. The concept of nucleosomes; mechanism of compaction of chromatin fibrils. The concept of decondensed and condensed chromatin (euchromatin, heterochromatin, chromosomes), the degree of their participation in synthetic processes. Chromosome structure. Sex chromatin.

23. Nucleolus. The nucleolus as a derivative of chromosomes. The concept of the nucleolar organizer. The number and size of nucleoli. Chemical composition, structure, function. Characteristics of fibrillar and granular components, their relationship with the intensity of RNA synthesis. Structural and functional lability of the nucleolar apparatus.

24. Nuclear envelope. Structure and functions. Structural and functional characteristics of the outer and inner membranes, perinuclear space, nuclear pore complex. The relationship between the number of nuclear pores and the intensity of metabolic activity of cells. Communication of the nuclear envelope with the endoplasmic reticulum; the role of the outer membrane in the process of new growth of cell membranes.

25. The main manifestations of the vital activity of cells. Synthetic processes in the cell. The interrelation of cell components in the processes of anabolism and catabolism.

26. The concept of the secretory cycle; mechanisms of absorption and release of products in the cell.

27. Intracellular regeneration. General characteristics and biological significance.

27. Informational intercellular interactions. Humoral, synaptic, extracellular matrix and gap junctions interactions.

28. The reaction of cells to external influences. Structural and functional changes in cells and individual cellular components in the processes of reactivity and adaptation. Physiological and reparative regeneration: essence and mechanisms.

29. Cell cycle. Definition of the concept; stages of the cell cycle for cells that have retained the ability to divide, and cells that have lost the ability to divide.

30. Mitosis. Definition of the concept. Cycle phases (interphase, mitosis). The biological significance of mitosis and its mechanism. Transformation of the structural components of the cell at various stages of mitosis. The role of the cell center in mitotic cell division. Morphology of mitotic chromosomes.

31 Endomitosis. Definition of the concept. Basic forms, biological significance. The concept of cell ploidy. Polyploidy; mechanisms of formation of polyploid cells (mononuclear, multinucleated), the functional significance of this phenomenon.

32. Meiosis. Its mechanism and biological significance.

33. Morphofunctional characteristics of growth and differentiation processes, the period of active functioning, aging and cell death.

34. Cell death. Degeneration, necrosis. Definition of the concept and its biological significance. Apoptosis (programmed cell death). Definition of the concept and its biological significance.

Embryology.

1. Mammalian embryology as a basis for understanding the characteristics of human embryonic development. Periodization of human and animal development.

2. The idea of the biological processes underlying the development of the embryo: induction, determination, division, cell migration, growth, differentiation, cell interaction, cell death.

3. Features of human embryonic development. Critical periods in development. Breach of the processes of determination as the cause of anomalies and deformities.

4. Progenesis. Spermatogenesis. Ovogenesis. Features of the structure of germ cells.

5 Fertilization. The biological significance of fertilization, features and chronology of the process. Distant and contact interactions of germ cells. Transformations in sperm: capacitation, acrosomal reaction, sperm penetration of the zona pellucida and ovolemma of the oocyte, discharge of the cytoplasmic membrane of the sperm, rotation of the sperm, formation of the male pronucleus.

6. Transformations in the oocyte: dispersion of cells of the corona radiata, cortical reaction, release of enzymes of cortical granules, transformation of the zona pellucida (zona reaction), activation of cytoplasmic processes, termination of meiosis, polar bodies.

7. The first week of development. Zygote is a unicellular embryo, its genome, activation of intracellular processes.

8. Cleavage. The specificity of cleavage in human and the chronology of the process. The structure of the embryo at different stages of cleavage. The role of the zona pellucida. Characteristics of dark and light blastomeres, their intercellular contacts. Reducing the size of blastomeres, their interaction. Morula.

9. Blastocyst. Internal cell mass (embryoblast) and trophoblast. Free blastocyst stage. The state of the uterus at the beginning of implantation. The beginning of the 1st phase of gastrulation.

10. Implantation. Chronology of the implantation process. Differentiation of trophoblast into cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast. Syncytiotrophoblast activation. The formation of lacunae and their connection with the blood vessels of the endometrium. Histiotrophic type of nutrition. Formation of primary and secondary chorionic villi.

11. Second week of development. Gastrulation. Division of the embryoblast into epiblast and hypoblast. Transformation of the hypoblast, the formation of the primary yolk sac, the formation of prechordal plate. Extraembryonic mesoderm formation.

12. Third week of development. Differentiation of the embryonic mesoderm (somites, nephrogonotomes, visceral and parietal splanchnotome sheets, embryonic coelom). Growth of the cephalic process, notochord formation. Formation of the neural tube and neural crests, asynchronous development of the head and caudal regions. Trunk fold, formation of the primitive gut.

13. Differentiation of the extraembryonic mesoderm of allantois, amniotic sac, yolk stem, connective stalk, layer underlying the trophoblast.

14. Formation of primary blood vessels and primary blood cells in the yolk sac mesoderm, the connecting leg. Formation of the first blood vessels in the mesoderm of the embryo. The rudiment of the primary heart, the beginning of the function. Rudiments of the pronephros, lung.

15. Formation of tertiary chorionic villi. Hemotrophic type of nutrition.

16. Fourth week of development. Change in the shape of the embryo (the formation of transverse and longitudinal folds). Completion of the processes of neurulation and segmentation of the mesoderm. Auricular and lens placodes. Development of mesonephros. Migration of gonocytes from the vitelline endoderm of the caudal end of the embryo.

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