Epithet. Graphical Expressive Means

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Epithet

When Metaphor is used attributively or adverbially, it’s called E.

1. simple epithet – “mildly”;

2. two-step epithet – adverb+ adjective –“ awfully beautiful”;

3. syntactical epithet – (a modifier and a thing modified) – “a book of joy”;

She opened the megaphone of her mouth.

4. compound epithet – (compound words) – a heart-burning sigh;

5. phrase epithet – She gave me a quickly-kiss-me-look;

There was a man with a don’t-say-anything-to-me face.

6. sentence - My love! I adore you!

Antonomasia is the interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word:

a) a proper name is used instead of a common noun (metaphorical antonomasia):

e.g. He’s a Napoleon of crime.

b) a common noun is used instead of proper name:

e.g. Mrs. Blue Eyes, don’t make eyes on me!

c) a descriptive word combination is used instead of a proper name:

e.g. Mr. Something-Somebody is waiting for you.

I recommend you three doctors: Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh Air.

2. Lexical-syntactical SD are based on the binary opposition of lexical meanings accompanied by fixed syntactical organization of the employed unit.

Similecompares unlike things and represents a certain structure as we use the words:”like”, “as…as”, “as…if” to compare objects.

e.g. …the sense of the beach which on March nights gleamed like powdered light.

Antithesis is juxtaposition of two words, phrases, clauses or sentences contrasted or opposed in the meaning in such a way as to give the emphasis on contrasting ideas:

Ex. To err is human; to forgive – divine;

Why should I dress up? When I’m at home everyone recognizes me; and when I’m in town, nobody recognizes me.

Climaxis a Greek word& means “ladder”. It represents an arrangement of words, clauses or sentences in the order of their importance:

e.g. clever- talented – genius (ascending)

chaos – waste- cries (descending);

Ex. A city life is environmentally unhealthy, chronically dangerous and morally corrupting.

A sudden reversal of expectations which are caused by climax is called Anticlimax.

It’s sequence of ideas that abruptly diminish in dignity or importance at the end of the sentence or passage, generally for satirical effect:

Ex. Among the great achievements of Benito Mussolini’s regime were the revival of strong national consciousness, the expansion of the Italian Empire and the running of the trains on time.

Ex. One needs a perfect memory to forget everything.

A realA. is a sudden deception(=trick, act of deceiving) of the reader because he predicts a strong element to follow, instead some insignificant idea follows the significant one.

Periphrasis is the renaming of an object by a phrase to bring out its some particular feature.

e.g. the fair sex – слабый (прекрасный )пол;

the cap and gown – студенты (берет и плащ- одежда английский студентов и профессуры)

Another type ofP. isEuphemism. It’s is the substitution of a delicate or inoffensive term for one that has unpleasant association, e.g. the use of “lavatory” or “restroom” for “toilet”; “pass away” for “die”.

Litotes is a type of understatement employed for purpose of enhancing the effect of the idea expressed.

e.g. It’s a good film= It’s not a bad film.

He’s not without a sense of humour.

It was not unwise to follow the advice.

3. Syntactical SD are based on the binary opposition of two syntactical meanings regardless of the semantics.

Stylistic repetition doesn’t aim at directemotionalimpact but it focuses on logicalemphasis.

Different types of repetition are classified according to their compositional design.

1. Anaphora implies the identity of beginnings of one or several initial elements in adjacent(=very close, touching) sentences.

e.g. Supposing hewas killed, supposing he was run over, supposing he had been drowned.

2. Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora, i.e. repetition of concluding elements.

e.g. I woke up alone, I walked alone, and returned home alone.

3. Framing (рамочная конструкция) - the repeated unit stands at the beginning & at the end of the sentence.

e.g. He ran away from the battle, he hated the war, he didn’t want to kill and be killed, so he ran away from the battle.

4. Anadiplosis represents the following structure: the last, significant word or part of the utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part of the utterance; thus hooking both the parts of the utterances together. The essence of this device is as follows: instead of going on the writer steps back, picks up the word which is important . and repeats it.

e.g. With bewick on my knee I was then happy; happy at last in my own way.

5. Chain repetition is a catch repetition repeated several times.

The structure: a...b, b...c, c…d, d…

Among other types of R. there are also : simple, morphological & root R.

Simple R. is a R. of a word and doesn’t have a fixed position in the utterance.

M.R. is a R. of a suffix/ prefix.

R.R. is a repetition of the root.e.g. It’s hopeless to live again in the youth of the youth.

Parallel construction (parallelism) is based on identity or similarity of the syntactical structure in two or more successive parts of a sentence, when the structure is completely repeated throughout the utterance.

e.g. There were real silver spoons to stir the tea with; there were crystal glasses to drink out; there were real china plates to take the sandwiches from.

We see the same structure here.

Partial parallelism represents the R. of some parts of the sentence:

e.g. You know, I’m grateful to him, don’t you? You know I feel respect for him, don’t you?

Parallel construction is most frequently used in antithesis, climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by this SD.

Stylistic inversion doesn’t change the structure of the sentence. The aim of S.I is to attach logical & emotional attention to the surface meaning of the utterance.

e.g. They slid down| off he went; down they slid| he went off.

Detachment (detached construction) is a specific phonetic treatment of a word/ word group. It may get an additional stress when isolated from the sentence by short pause in articulation and - by comma, dash, full stop in writing.

e.g. He came into the room, happy.

He felt miserable standing before mother – a true worm.

Linguists think detached construction has a greater effect than Inversion with which it’s akin(=similar) just because the detached part seems to get a greater independence, compared with an inverted part.

Chiasmus is reversed parallel construction. Classical C. is a two-sentence structure where one sentence has an inverted order.

e.g. The curtain went up, down went the lights.

In rushed the messenger, the editor stood up.

C can also be achieved by a sudden change Active Voice into Passive and vice versa.

Some puns are based on Chiasmus:

e.g. Soldiers face powder, girls powder faces.

A handsome man kisses Misses, an ugly one misses kisses.

Ellipses or elliptical sentences are quite normal in conversation, because there’s no necessity to react to somebody’s remark with the help of full completed sentence. Usually the principle members of the sentence are omitted. There’re frequent cases when only interrogative pronouns & adverbs make up such sentences.

e.g. Oh, with my friends! When?

Any E.sentence can be restored from what was said before. Usually characters are under some emotional stress or when they’re in a hurry to learn the fact, to establish the truth. There’s another type of E. which is met in the narration & is called the author’s Ellipse. In this case either the link verb or the predicate is omitted.

e.g. The girls were in white and tears, the gentlemen – in high top hats and high spirits.

E. is common for specialtypes of texts: handbooks on technology, on natural sciences, reference books, telegraphical messages & encyclopedias.

Question-in-the –narrative is met in an unuttered represented speech where a questioner & addresseeis one and the same person and these questions may be answered or remained unanswered. It happens when a person meets a dilemma, when he/she is to make some decision.

e.g. Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course, he did. How could be otherwise?

Rhetorical question is asking question not to gather information but to assert more emphatically the obvious answer of what is asked & no answer is expected by the speaker.

e.g. Did you help me when I needed help? Did you do anything to lessen my load?

The difference between R.Q & Q.-in-the –narrative lies in the following:

a R.Q.is not a question but a statement in the form of Q.

Asyndeton is a deliberate omission of conjunctions & prepositions.

e.g. James turned away;[because] he had an utter(=complete; absolute) disinclination (=lack of willingness) for talk, like one standing before an open grave watching a coffin slowly lowered.

The omission of the conjunction “because” after “turned away” makes the other part of the sentence almost entirely independent.

Polysyndeton is a deliberate use of conjunctions & prepositions which are usually repeated. This repetition makes the utterance more rhythmical. Another function of Polysyndeton is expressing sequence (=enumeration; naming things on the list one by one).

e.g. The heaviest rain and snow andhail (=frozen rain drops) and sleet (=ice falling in fine bits with water)could boast the advantage over him in only one respect.

4. Graphical Expressive Means

Italics, bold type, capitalization, multiplication, hyphenation, graphon.

Graphon is unusual non-standard spelling of words, it shows either deviation from standard or some peculiarity in pronunciation of words or phrases. G. may be caused by temporary ignorance of the rules (tender age=young inexperienced, intoxication=strong feelings of wild excitement) and by prominent factors like territorial, educational etc. peculiarities.

e.g. Thquire! Your thervant! Thith ith a bad pieth of bithnith; thith ith …

[s] =[th] It’s characteristic of people who lisp (=speak unclearly pronouncing s-sound as [ ]).

Squire! Your servant! This is a bad piece of business, this is…

(graphon [ ] stands for the letter s)

A typical in this respect is the reproduction by many British writers of Cockney. i.e. the lower class of the London population. One Cockney feature is the famous dropping of “H-s” (an inexact denomination | since “h-s“ are dropped only in graphons: ‘ave (=have); ‘at (=hat); ‘is (=his),’ope (=hope) etc.

Another well-known peculiarity of Cockney English is the substitution of the diphthong [ai] for the diphthong [ei].

This is how John Galsworthy reproduces the speech of one of the characters of the White Monkey (Tony Bicket):

“Is that my wife? I see it is from your fyce.I want the truth – I must ‘ave it! If that’s ‘er fyce there, then that’s ‘erbody in the gallery.

The change of the diphthong [ei] into [ai] occurs not only in the speech of uneducated Londoners.

A speaker may strengthen, emphasize , make the word more prominent. When he, for instance, intensifies its initial consonant, which is shown in ther graphon as doubling the letter.

e.g. Y-y-yes! or N-no! sounds more decisive, emphatic than a meer “No”.

Another way of intensifying a word/ phrase, making it more expressive is scanning, i.e. uttering each syllable or a part of a word as a phonetically independent unit in retarded (=slower in development) tempo. The graphic means of showing this graphon is hyphenated spelling: ‘Im-pos-sible!”

The corresponding graphons in print are italics (sloping letter – the style of writing or printing) orcapitalization:

She was simply beautiful. (italics)

I’ll NEVER see him again! (capitalization)

Phonetic EM:

Alliteration- e.g. “Now or never”; “ As good as gold”;”Last but not the least”; “The Flavour’s Fresher” (Colgate toothpaste)

assonance, consonance

onomatopoeia or sound imitation – “cuckoo”, “buzz”.

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