Methods of teaching

1. Methodological classification of English sounds. Ways of introducing new sounds.            All sounds are divided methodologically into 3groups:
1) sounds similar in articulation to the sounds of native speech; no additional explanation and long practice is needed;
2) sounds which only seem similar to the sounds of the native language, but differ from them in some aspects; explanation of the articulation of these sounds is necessary, demonstrational practice is needed; most mistakes learners make in articulating these sounds;
3) sounds that have no analogues in the native language; detailed explanation of the articulation should be given, long practice is necessary.
Waysofintroducing new sounds:
1) imitation;
2) description of articulation;
3) comparison with the native sounds.
Step-by-stepprocedure:
1) introducing new sound in a stream of speech;
2) pronouncing it clearly in a word (at least 4 times);
3) explaining the articulation of the introduced sound and showing the difference between this sound;
4) pupils pronounce the sound after the teacher, first in chorus in a low voice, then individually in a louder voice;
5) pupils pronounce words and phrases with this sound.

2. Activities for practicing pronunciation.
Two types of exercises:
1) receptive-recognizing.
Students’ ability to listen and to differentiate sounds and intonation patterns is developed:
- recognition by giving non-verbal signals (e. g. clap your hands);
- differentiation of sounds;
- identification of sounds in the flow of speech.
2) receptive-reproductive.
- giving verbal signals (e. g. listen and repeat);
- short answers;
- substitution (e. g. change letters);
- transformation.

3. Teaching grammar. Approaches to teaching grammar.
Grammar enables pupils to use linguistic forms meaningfully and accurately, to encode the meaning of a grammar structure used in oral or written speech. Competence: knowledge, skills, awareness.
Active and passive grammatical minimums are selected. Activeminimum is selected according to frequency of use in oral speech, the ability of the structure to serve as a model, exclusion of synonymous structures. Passiveminimum is selected according to frequency of use in writing, the ability of an item to perform different functions and express different meanings.
Grammar skills – receptive (listening, reading) and productive (writing, speaking).
Grammar awareness is the learners’ ability to analyze grammar structures, to compare them with their native language, to notice and to correct their mistakes.
Difficulties:
1) objective (connected with nature):
- interference of the learner’s native language;
- presence or absence of a certain grammar phenomenon in the learner’s native language;
- correspondences in the meaning or usage of the grammar forms;
- the way of expressing grammar categories may differ;
2) subjective (caused by incompetence of the teacher):
- grammar items are not presented in the meaningful context;
- lots of terms, rules and exceptions;
- only mechanical drills are used;
- only whole-class-mode is used, learners become passive.
Approaches:
1) deductive (PPP: presentation, practice, production);
- advantages: saves time, creates conditions for more exact understanding by all the learners, it can help to overcome mother-tongue interference;
- disadvantages: learners are usually passive recipients, neither the rule itself nor the examples are connected with learners’ experience, the rule is easier forgotten than in the inductive approach;
2) inductive (MMM: meeting the new language, manipulating the new language, making the new language their own);
- advantages: makes learners active thinkers, makes learners compare a grammar item with those in their mother-tongue, helps to remember better, helps them understand their own native language better;
- disadvantages: it takes more time, the teacher can’t be sure that all the students formulated and understood the rule properly.

4. Ways of presenting and exploring grammar.
Stages in the process of teaching grammar:
□ Presentation;
□ Practice;
□ Production.
For teaching grammar we use the presentation of new grammar items in an appropriate situation. Practice of formation of grammar sub-skills by automatic usage in oral speech. Production deals with integration of grammar sub-skills with all the skills. The aim of the first stage is to create the base in the process of presenting new grammar items in oral or written form. It is important to show the function of a new grammar item, explain the meaning and the ways of formation. During the second stage grammar subskills are formed through constant use first in similar situations, and then in various situations, and then in oral speech. Then it is time for tentative use of a newly produced item. The way of presentation may be formed differently.

5. Grammar practice activities.
1) receptive activities:
- recognition (e. g. read the text and copy out);
- differentiation;
- identification (e. g. read the sentences and complete the table);
- matching (e. g. structure – function);
- multiple choice according to the context;
- checking comprehension of grammar structures (e. g. interpret the meaning);
2) receptive-reproductive activities:
- imitation;
- substitution;
- questions and answers;
- transformation;
- completing sentences;
- combining sentences;
- using the grammar item in one’s own sentence;
- using the grammar item in one’s own utterance.

6. Ways of presenting vocabulary.
Ways of presenting vocabulary differ. It depends on:
1) the nature of the vocabulary unit (concrete or abstract);
2) the learner (age);
3) level of proficiency;
4) learner needs;
5) learning and teaching context.
Ways of presentation are divided into:
□ those that use mother-tongue
- translation of a word;
- translation of the whole sentences;
- explanation or definition in the native language;
□ those that don’t use
- visual – demonstration of object, pictures, maps, gestures, actions, miming;
- monolingual – presenting words with the help of the context, contrasting the unit to familiar synonyms or antonyms, definition, explanation in English.
Combined methods are also used:
- word cards (quantity depends on the age);
- scales (e. g. 2 poles – subjects);
- Venn diagram – represents 2 or more overlapping circles (e. g. topic “relatives”);
- charts and different tables – help to learn and understand.

7. Activities for practicing vocabulary.
1) drills
- imitation of words, collocations, phrases;
- word-building analysis;
- grouping the words (topic, part of speech, connotation);
- supplying comments;
- supplying synonyms and antonyms;
- “odd man out” (practicing activity);
- matching (word-synonym, word-definition, word-native equivalent);
- mind maps
2) activities for developing receptive lexical skills
- matching a unit to its dictionary form and finding out the meaning in the collocation;
- filling in the gaps in the text;
- sentence completion;
- selecting some units from the text;
- deducing the meaning of words from their stem-building elements;
3) activities for developing reproductive lexical skills
- answering questions of different types;
- substitution;
- utterance completion or utterance expansion;
- using vocabulary units in learner’s own sentences;
- combining sentences into a monologue or a dialogue;
- using vocabulary units in mini-texts of your own.

8. Teaching listening. Stages in teaching listening.
Listening comprehension refers to oral speech, it is receptive, it is reactive, it is internal by its character, the reacting can be given verbally or non-verbally, the communication can be direct or indirect. Competence includes: knowledge, skills and subskills, communication abilities. Knowledge: linguistic, sociocultural, pragmatic, sociolinguistic.
Skills and subskills:
- to recognize the communicative function of the text;
- to obtain the gist;
- to identify specific details;
- to distinguish the main ideas from the specific details;
- to predict the content of the text or the development of the discourse;
- to infer the context of the discourse;
- to recognize the speaker’s attitude towards the topic and towards the interlocutor;
- to infer the necessary information from the context;
- to ignore unfamiliar language material which is not important for understanding.
Stages:
1) pre-listening – used for eliminating language and context difficulties; tuning in; motivating;
- phonetic, vocabulary and grammar exercises;
- predicting text content using headlines, key words, pictures;
- asking questions on the text topic;
2) while-listening – students practice in different types of listening (for gist, for specific info);
- ordering the pictures;
- completing the sentences;
- matching texts with titles;
- matching texts with pictures;
- labelling;
- gap filling;
- true/false;
- multiple choice;
- listing (“listen and write down the names/events…”);
3) post-listening stage presupposes learners’ level of understanding – using the information inferred from the text to develop other skills;
- true/false (details);
- multiple choice (details);
- identifying relations between speakers;
- inferring attitude;
- expanding the text;
- questions and answers;
- summarizing;
- retelling some episodes of the text;
- organizing group and panel discussions;
- writing compositions, essays, letters.

9. Difficulties in teaching listening and the ways to overcome them.
1) subjective listener’s difficulties
- ability to focus, to concentrate;
- motivation;
- auditory memory;
- flexibility of thinking;
- speed of reaction;
- ability to transfer from one logical operation to another;
- tiredness;
- health state;
2) objective linguistic difficulties
- phonetic
- lexical
- grammatical
- text genre and text type
3) objective difficulties caused by the environment
- tempo of speech;
- duration of the recording;
- quality of the soundtrack;
- whether it is live or recorded.
Requirements to audio texts:
- interesting for learners;
- should correspond to their age, life experience;
- have a simple and logical composition;
- some extra elements.

10. Activities for developing listening skills.
1) pre-listening:
- phonetic, vocabulary and grammar exercises;
- predicting text content using headlines, key words, pictures;
- asking questions on the text topic;
2) while-listening:
- ordering the pictures;
- completing the sentences;
- matching texts with titles;
- matching texts with pictures;
- labelling;
- gap filling;
- true/false;
- multiple choice;
- listing (“listen and write down the names/events…”);
3) post-listening:
- true/false (details);
- multiple choice (details);
- identifying relations between speakers;
- inferring attitude;
- expanding the text;
- questions and answers;
- summarizing;
- retelling some episodes of the text;
- organizing group and panel discussions;
- writing compositions, essays, letters.

11. Real-life reading strategies (skimming, scanning, intensive, extensive reading). Activities for developing reading skills.
4 main types of reading:
1) skimming – looking through the text quickly to get the main idea and to decide whether it is worth reading; the speed is about 1. 5 pages per minute;
2) scanning – looking through the text to find a particular piece of information, useful when reading pragmatic texts, often used in assessment;
3) intensive reading – reading text in order to understand 100% of information, accuracy oriented
The tempo is 50-60 words per minute, texts are usually shorter than for skimming and scanning but are usually more complicated as to their content and language material. These texts can be authentic, abridged and adapted. They should be of different types and genres;
4) extensive reading – reading longer texts for pleasure, fluency oriented, involves global understanding, not a quick type of reading (includes home-reading, additional materials).
Activities:
1) pre-reading stage:
- motivating exercises;
- phonetic exercises;
- grammar exercises;
- vocabulary exercises;
- prediction activities;
2) while-reading stage:
- finding answers to questions;
- true/false;
- filling in the table;
- matching titles to paragraphs;
- ordering paragraphs;
- inserting sentences;
3) post-reading stage:
- questions and answers;
- multiple choice;
- completing sentences;
- matching.

12. Stages in teaching reading at school (aims and procedures).
Reading comprehension can be described at several levels:
- comprehension of fragments;
- global understanding;
- understanding of details;
- critical understanding.
The aims of teaching reading:
- at the end of the primary school children should have competence of reading at A1 level; that is they should be able to read both silently and aloud short texts which contain familiar material and understand short easy texts where they can guess the meaning of unfamiliar words (about 300 printed characters);
- basic school leavers should have their comprehension in reading developed at A2 level; texts about 800 characters long, texts that contain unfamiliar words whose meaning they can guess by context, by word-building analysis, by analogy with mother-tongue, by pictures and find the necessary information in the text;
- senior school children are supposed to have competence at B1/B1+ level; texts are to contain at least 1900 printed characters, they should be of different formats and genres, texts should contain intercultural information, should be scientifically-sound and prove a reliable source.

13. Linguosociocultural competence and its components, aims and ways of developing it at school.
Linguosocioculturalcompetence is an ability of a person to be engaged in intercultural communication. It embraces sociolinguistic, sociocultural and social competence.
Sociolinguisticcompetence is the learners’ ability to understand, to select and then use nationally and culturally marked, verbal and non-verbal means of communication. Those means include:
1) lexical units that have no equivalents in the native language;
2) words that need special background knowledge to fully understand their meaning (e. g. рука – arm, hand);
3) idioms, proverbs, sayings, all kinds of precedent texts;
4) phonetic means (intonation);
5) grammatical means.
Socioculturalcompetence is learner’s ability to acquire cultural and cross-cultural knowledge and skills to use it for a certain communication aim:
1) historical and cultural background;
2) sociocultural background;
3) ethnocultural knowledge (e. g. folklore, holidays, traditions);
4) semiotic background (e. g. symbols, pictograms, signs).
Socialcompetence is learner’s ability to communicate with foreigners without communication failures:
1) speech etiquette (norms of communication, patterns of behavior);
2) paraverbal or non-verbal means of communication;
3) body language;
4) distance between interlocutors;
5) distance in a view.
Aimsofteaching:
At primary school children should learn English names, folklore personages, games, rhymes, songs; get acquainted with some holidays, greeting norms. At basic school children should learn about geography, state symbols; they are taught to understand nationally marked words and use them in communication. The main idea is to develop tolerance and empathy to other cultures and nations. At senior school all these stereotypes are mastered.

14. Types of dialogues. Different approaches to teaching dialogue speech.
Dialogues consist of dialogue unities; that is remark of one interlocutor and a remark of another interlocutor. Types:
1) information exchange;
2) planning actions together;
3) exchange of impressions or opinions;
4) discussion;
5) ritual dialogues (etiquette dialogues).
Approaches:
1) inductive(bottom-up) – separate remarks are presented. This approach is more accurate and more conscious but the students may have difficulties when producing their own dialogues;
2) deductive(top-down) – the dialogue is presented as a whole, the learners try to guess the meaning from the context. The level of understanding may be incomplete, difficult to understand, memory is under stress.
Stages:
1) mastering replies to different stimuli (imitation, substitution, transformation, answering-asking questions, informing);
2) mastering dialogue unities and mastering mini-dialogues (receptive-reproductive, semi-controlled activities with verbal support);
3) mastering dialogues of different functional types (receptive-productive communicative tasks without verbal support/with natural support).
A widely used activity is a group role play (stages: preparatory, role play, assessment, feedback).

15. Types of monologues and approaches to teaching them. Types of speaking activities.
Three main types:
1) monologue description (e. g. “describe something as…”);
2) monologue narration (e. g. journalist’s questions);
3) monologue reflection (e. g. “prove that… has pros/cons).
Approaches:
1) top-down – monologue is based on a certain text;
2) bottom-up – skills are developed without the text support, monologues are produced independently.
Stages:
1) connecting sentences into periods which express one complete idea (the teacher begins – the learners continue, descriptions);
2) producing mini-monologues with verbal support (substitution, mind-maps, key words, plans); with visual support (pictures, slides, maps, objects);
3) producing different functional types of monologues, up to 20-25 sentences (communicative productive activities with natural support if necessary, spontaneous and prepared monologues; retelling).

16. Problems in teaching speaking and the ways to tackle them.
Problems:
1) it may occur that the topic is above the level of learners’ proficiency;
2) the situation is above the level of learners’ intellectual abilities;
3) the topic or the situation is beyond learners’ knowledge;
4) psychological problems.
Ways out:
1) to establish favorable psychological climate in a group;
2) sitting arrangements (in circles, in islands);
3) to let learners first speak in pairs, in small groups, and then organize a whole-class discussion;
4) to give a clear instruction to the speaking task;
5) to give a purpose for the activity (info/opinion gap);
6) learners are to personalize language.
Agoodspeakingactivity:
- is motivating, has a clear purpose and a clear outcome;
- it requires language within learner’s capability;
- speaking opportunities are maximized and equal participation is ensured;
- learners don’t need to refer to their mother-tongue;
- the activity can be extended to allow learners to speak more independently and to personalize the language used.

17. Ways of teaching beginners to write.
Techniques of writing include (+activities):
1) graphic/calligraphic skills (mastered in the 1-2 years) – receptive-reproductive activities
- grouping similarly shaped letters;
- letter recognition;
- games (“small letters have lost their parents, help them…”
2) spelling skills – non-communicative exercises
- copying;
- copying and underlining;
- copying and sorting out;
- copying only selected words;
- gap filling;
- unjumbling words;
- matching the halves of the words;
- finding the words in letter squares;
- crosswords;
- writing words to their native equivalents;
- different kinds of dictations:
    - Auditory– the teacher dictates a text. Requirements: read the text only 3 times (1 – listen, 2 – write, 3 – listen and check).

- Visual – the teacher writes words, sentences or short paragraphs on the blackboard and gives the students 4-5 minutes to look at it. Then he covers it, the students write the dictation from their memory. The main idea is the individual approach.

- Exclamatory – the teacher asks one of the students to write a couple of sentences. Then the student should explain the spelling of the difficult words. Then the students have auditory dictation where these words are used, but in different combinations.

- Running, or wall– the teacher pins the texts to the blackboard or to the wall, the students are divided into several teams, each teams runs to the blackboard, reads the first sentence and turns, dictates the sentence to his team, then the 2nd, the 3rd, etc. The team who finishes first is the winner.

- Loop– it’s repeated several types without pauses (short text, one passage, 5-6 sentences). 1- reads, 2 – 5-6 key words, leave space; 3-4 – they try to fill in words.

- Interactive – the teacher dictates the questions and the students write down answers. They may use their answers to ask questions.

18. Competence in writing. The role of writing in language teaching.
Writing is a communicative skill provided for expressing ideas in a graphic form.
Competence: knowledge, skills, communicative abilities.
Knowledge: linguistic, style, sociocultural, sociolinguistic, compensational strategies, background, cross-curriculum.
Skills: technical (graphic & spelling), grammar, vocabulary.
Communicativeskills: to produce texts of the required type and genre; to ensure coherence, cohesiveness, completeness and address character of the text; to provide for the appropriate style, register and genre; to provide for sociocultural requirements.
Intellectualskills: prediction, planning and programming, ability to generalize, to give arguments.
Compensationalskills: to paraphrase, to simplify, to support one’s writing with information inferred from the text of listening or reading, from one’s life experience.
Communicativeabilities: to choose the form and context of the text consciously and effectively, to self-correct, to edit, to persuade.
The most difficult type of speech activity (artificial). Important feature – the absence of the direct contact with the addressee.

19. The aims of teaching writing at school. Types and genres of writing.
By the end of primary school children should be able to describe classroom, toys, animals, themselves and relatives, weather, holidays; they should be able to write a greeting card or a short letter. The length of writing should be 6-7 sentences.
By the end of basic school the product is about 16 sentences. Besides, they should write an announcement, an invitation, filling the form, narration, express their attitude or opinion, share impressions, should be able to render the context.
By the end of senior school the length of a product is 20 sentences.
Functionaltypes of writing that children have to master include:
- description;
- narration;
- reflection.
Genres:
- notes;
- letters;
- forms;
- CV;
- announcement, advertisement;
- article;
- review.
Besides, there are academic genres of writing (used in teaching):
- writing a plan;
- writing a summary/annotation/essay;
- writing rendering.
Stages in teaching writing:
1) receptive – reading and analyzing a sample text;
2) receptive-reproductive – practicing some skills necessary for this functional type of writing;
3) productive – producing texts of one’s own.
Activities:
1) functional types (reading & analyzing – questions-answers – writing an introduction – planning main body – writing a conclusion - description)
2) academic genres (reading a sample, analyzing – thinking about introduction – thinking about structure).

20. Integrated development of different kinds of competences.
Linguosocioculturalcompetence is an ability of a person to be engaged in intercultural communication. It embraces sociolinguistic, sociocultural and social competence.
Sociolinguisticcompetence is the learners’ ability to understand, to select and then use nationally and culturally marked, verbal and non-verbal means of communication.
Socioculturalcompetence is learner’s ability to acquire cultural and cross-cultural knowledge and skills to use it for a certain communication aim.
Socialcompetence is learner’s ability to communicate with foreigners without communication failures.
In developing lexicalcompetence special attention is given to commentaries on naturally and culturally marked units.
Grammarcompetence: attention should be given to different structures, to answers, to impersonal structures.
Phoneticcompetence: intonation patterns.
Competence in reading and listening: culturally marked units are commonly used, visuals are used.
Competence in speaking: communication patterns.
Competence in writing: genres and types of writing, different conventions.

21. Visual aids in presenting and practicing language. Visuals in skills development.
Visuals:
1) technical (computer, recordings, video, films, etc)
2) non-technical (pictures, photos, posters, flash cards, maps, diagrams, real objects, toys, board).
Pictures are used when introducing new vocabulary and new grammar structures. Can be used in listing, comparing. A picture may be thought-provoking. Flash-cards include: letter cards, number cards, word cards, sentence cards. Board: handwriting.
Functions:
- source of information;
- springboard for speaking and writing activities;
- support in performing listening activities, developing cognitive mechanisms;
- model text;
- influences learners effectively;
- motivating tool.

22. Mistakes and errors. Approaches to error correction.
Mistakes can be self-corrected (a slip of the tongue or a slip of the pen). The learner can self-correct a mistake.
Causes (psychological, physiological): carelessness; tiredness; lack of concentration; environment; inhibitions; not too much attention is paid to the form but to the content.
A learner is incapable of correcting an error:
1) he can’t correct an error because the material has not been given and practiced yet; errors are learning steps;
2) teacher has presented the material but learners get it wrong.
Principlesofcorrection:
- correction is a guiding tool helping learners to become aware of the correct form;
- correction should be done positively, not as a tool for punishment;
- correction should have a purpose;
- correction should be done at the appropriate time;
- correction should not be necessarily teacher-dominated; a teacher should give students a chance to correct themselves.
In case of overcorrection the teacher dominated the classroom and intimidates the learners; the teacher-talking-time prevails over the learners’ talking time; the teacher’s aim is accuracy; fluency of students’ speech suffers. Some students who are risk-avoiders feel more secure in this atmosphere. Knock-on effect on parents and administration is positive. Undercorrector may be viewed as an incompetent professional. For risk-takers it is okay, for others it is not.
Factors that influence the teacher’s decision to correct:
- type of activity (accuracy oriented or fluency oriented);
- the stage of the lesson (practicing or producing);
- a kind of mistake;
- the level of the students;
- the stage of learning;
- the number of learners making a mistake;
- the frequency of the mistake;
- the timing of the lesson;
- external factors that may influence the teacher’s behavior.

23. Correction techniques in teaching productive and receptive skills.
Correcting techniques of speaking:
1) the teacher doesn’t interrupt the learners, makes notes of the mistakes, then reminds to the students;
2) the teacher interrupts the learner but only if the learner gets stuck;
3) the teacher gets other learners to make on-the-spot corrections;
4) the teacher doesn’t interrupt the learner, makes notes of the mistakes, and then brings out the most serious ones and gives a learner the chance to self-correct;
5) the teacher interrupts the learner’s utterance by giving some signals;
6) the teacher doesn’t interrupt the learners, but makes other learners make notes of the mistakes, then they bring them out and discuss;
7) the teacher makes notes of the mistakes, but doesn’t correct them immediately after the activity in front of the class, he does it individually after the lesson.
Criteria: focus, time spent, physical involvement, attitude.
Correcting techniques of writing:
1) the teacher indicates those errors first which interfere with understanding/communication; underlining and special symbols should be used;
2) the teacher should begin with positive work (feedback);
3) games.

24. Classroom management. Ways of organizing students. Types of interaction.
Types of interaction:           whole-class activities; group work; pair work.
Management skills of the teacher are divided into 2 groups:
1) physical (gesture, voice, position, posture, eye contact);
2) verbal (classroom language).
It should correspond to the age, to the level of language proficiency, to the stage of the lesson.
There may be different sitting arrangement patterns:
1) desks arranged in rows and all learners face the board and the teacher (the teacher dominates, full control);
2) learners sit in the circle and the teacher is a part of it; released atmosphere; pair work, discussion, story-telling;
3) desks are arranged in semi-circle, the teacher’s table is at the head (accuracy work);
4) desks are arranged in certain islands (group work);
5) desks are arranged in a long row and students sit at both sides of this row (more informal).
Giving instructions:
1) take into account the age and the level of proficiency;
2) make instructions clear (if necessary, provide an example);
3) make instructions as short as possible;
4) the language complexity of the instruction shouldn’t be greater than that of the activity;
5) if it is a part or a group activity, set a time limit in the instruction.

25. Planning the educational process. Planning principles. Types of lessons. Lesson plan structure.
When planning a lesson, a teacher performs the following sequence of actions:
1) define the target audience;
2) analyze the material content;
3) define the lesson type;
4) formulate objectives;
5) distribute material for each stage;
6) allocate time per each stage;
7) design/select activities;
8) write down a lesson plan;
9) ensure that means of instruction are ready.
Principles:
1) appropriateness;
2) variety (number, character of activities, types of interaction, skills to be developed);
3) flexibility.
3 main types of English lessons:
1) combined lesson – focus on language and skills (includes introduction of the new material);
2) integrated skills lesson – focus on developing certain skills;
3) test lesson – focus on summative testing.
Both combined and integrated skills lesson should be appropriately structured.
Begins with marking the date and the target audience → topic → objectives → teaching aids → procedure → giving feedback and summing up the lesson.
Requirements to the lesson:
1) competence orientation;
2) skill integration;
3) English as the aim of teaching and a means of instruction;
4) all learners are involved in communication;
5) variety of activities and forms of interaction;
6) developing motivation and maintaining interest.
Tips about lessons:
- don’t plan too much, but always have some extra activity;
- tell the learners before the activity how long they are supposed to spend on it;
- allocate some time for copying the important information from the board;
- give slow/weak learners time for answering somebody’s question but don’t wait too long;
- keep under control the time allocated for each activity.

26. Mixed-ability classes and differentiation (individualization).
Mixed-ability classes may differ in:
- mental abilities (slow – bright);
- learning styles (individual – group, risk-takers – risk-avoiders);
- learning experiences;
- gender interests.
How to differentiate:
1) time – different time for slow and bright learners;
2) amount and kind of support;
3) amount and form of input (content, information);
4) task complexity;
5) type of response;
6) grouping.
Differentiation requires much more preparation for the lesson.

27. The roles of the teacher and the learner.
Roles of a teacher according to the communicative approach:
- an organizer (organizes learners’ work at the lesson);
- a manager (manages the process of learners’ work);
- a model (of correct language behavior patterns);
- an informant (informs learners about language norms and exclusions);
- a monitor (observes learners’ work, decides when to stop etc);
- a councilor (gives pieces of advice when asked);
- a facilitator (helps in case of difficulty);
- a communication partner (talks with learners);
- a life-long learner (a teacher improves his own competence all the time).
Roles of a learner:
- the subject of the educational process (not the object but a participant);
- a communication partner;
- an active participant (in selecting the ways of learning, some texts for reading, some additional information etc);
- an autonomous learner (responsible for his own learning).

28. Games in language teaching. Types and value of games.
Games are fun activities that promote learning through pleasure. Games are entertaining, can be used at all stages of the lesson.
Advantages:
- more variety is added;
- the pace of a lesson can be changed;
- frequent recycling of language material is provided without board;
- hidden practice of specific language material;
- more formal teaching can be temporarily replaced with games;
- every learner’s participation is encouraged;
- learner-to-learner communication is increased;
- the distance between teacher and learners can be reduced;
- areas of weakness and the need of further language work are revealed.
Kinds:
1) the kind of activity (physical, intellectual);
2) the character of educational process (teaching, cognitive, productive, communicative);
3) the way of playing (with objects, with plots, role plays, simulations);
4) the number of players (one, pair, groups, teams, collective);
5) developing cognitive process (developing sociocultural competence, world mapping, learner autonomy, logical thinking, collectivism, sociability, attention, memory);
6) aims and tasks (developing language competence, skills);
7) method of organization (with objects, cards, technical means of communication);
8) level of complexity;
9) time needed.

29. Assessment: aims, functions, types and forms. Requirements to assessment.
Assessment is a part of evaluation. Assessment deals with learners’ performance and giving points according to the national point scheme.
Evaluation is an umbrella term including evaluation of the curriculum, evaluation of teaching materials, evaluation of plans, organization of educational process, teachers’ and learners’ performance. Evaluation can be qualitative and quantitative.
Testing is conducted under special conditions and through special items and it is a form of assessment alongside with traditional oral exams.
Aims: to provide feedback, to motivate learners (help them understand their success).
Forms: oral/written; monolingual/bilingual; individual/pair/small group/whole class.
Functions:
- eliciting feedback (diagnostic function);
- correcting function;
- testing function (marks);
- educational function;
- developmental function.
Types:
1) diagnostic assessment (before a certain period of studies);
2) formative assessment (during the period of studies; should provide continuous feedback);
3) summative assessment (after a certain period of studies).
Types according to who performs: teacher assessment, external assessment, peer assessment, self-assessment.
Requirements:
1) purposefulness;
2) representativeness;
3) objectivity;
4) regularity;
5) differentiation;
6) clarity of instructions.

30. Objects of assessment. Ways of assessing learners’ competence in receptive and productive skills.
Objects of assessment: components of the communicative competence. Skills are in the focus, not knowledge. Criteria are both qualitative and quantitative. For assessing productive skills:
Qualitative criteria:
- appropriateness to the communicative task;
- topic coverage;
- degree of learners’ autonomy;
- range of structures and vocabulary units;
- speech correctness;
Quantitative criteria:
- tempo of speech (speaking);
- the number of sentences, word bank (writing).
For assessing receptive skills:
The main qualitative criterion is degree of comprehension.
Quantitative criteria:
- tempo and duration of the recording (listening);
- the length of the text (reading).
Ways of assessment:
Reading: T/F, matching, multiple choice, translation, asking questions, retelling.
Listening: tests, answering questions, retelling, finding the main idea.
Speaking and writing have no special ways.

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