Metonymy.. Hyperbole.. Understatement.. Paranomasia.. Means of formations.

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Metonymy.

skirt – a girl

pinkeye – inferior whisky which causes reddening of the eyes

two umlauts – a Lowenbrau beer

Hyperbole.

killing – astonishing (The girls were dressed to kill).

A-bomb (drug abuse)

ripping, topping, corking (excellent)

Understatement.

some – excellent, bad

Irony.

clear as mud – confusing

Paranomasia.

distortions of standart words

Gosh = God

Cripes = Christ

Sys-frog = sys-prog

Means of formations.

1. yours truly (used instead of you, me): Hold on, Arthur, my boy. This is too much at once for yours truly.

2. number one = I + connotation of priority, egoistic tinge

3. abbreviations (math, exam, prof, AFAIK = as far as I know);

4. new words (shenanigans = tricks).

The function of slang words is to escape the dull familiarity of standard words. Unlike jargon, slang words do not aim at secrecy.

Cockney rhyming slang – consists of 2 or more words, the latter is a rhyme of the word to be represented.

E.g. mince pie = eye

happy half hours = flowers

Sometimes rhyming slang phrases contain words or connotations connected with subject matter.

all time loser = boozer

dead horse = tomato sauce

nervous wreck = checque

There are a lot of proper names in slang. These precedential names are charged with national and cultural connotations, thus making rhyming slang a unique phenomenon of EL and culture.

names of places:

France and Spain = rain

names of people:

Brad Pitt = shit

literary characters:

Captain Hook = book

biblical names:

Adam and Eve = believe;

names of popular phenomena:
Rhythm and Blues = shoes;
names of historical characters:

Jargon words are words used in professional or social groups as informal often humorous replacers of formally existent words. Formal words are considered to be pedantic, over-correct, unnecessarily high-flowh. Thus, the use of jargon implies deviants, a kind of naughtiness in lingual behavior.

Kuharenko – 2 groups of jargonisms:

1. professional – circulate within communities joined by professional interests. They are unofficial terms in a special field (=informal substitudes for special terms, emotive synonyms to terms), pertain to very specific objects typical of this professional sphere only, do not aim at secrecy;

2. social.

Every professional group or a subculture has its own jargon.

1. trucker’s lingo: alligators – strips of rubble; wiggle wagon – 2ng trailer;

2. soldier’s jargon: put in a bag – to be killed in an action;

3. nautical jargon: soap – bread, flannel – cheese;

4. police jargon: a wiggle seat – lie detector, salt and pepper – police team – one is black, the other one is white.

5. hacker’s jargon – angry fruit salad – too bright interface; wetware (programmers);

6. hard rock music subculture: moshing, slam dancing, wall of death, head banging (banging one’s head rhythmically);

7. surfers subculture: 64 types of waves;

8. parkour jargon: cat leap, tic-tac (names for types of wall climbs);

9. skateboard jargon: sandwich (the name of board);

10. mountain biker’s: gravity check (fall); potato chip ( a terribly bent wheel);

11. economic jargon: Jennifer Lopez (special diagram).

The function of professionalisms in prose is to depict the natural speech of the character, to reveal his education, occupation, environment.

Social jargonisms are to be found within groups characterized by social integrity. They pertain to objects, notions of everyday life. They are emotive synonyms to neutral words of the general wordstock. They aim at secrecy and purposefully conceal of disguise the meaning of the expressed concept. We refer to the cant, which is the jargon of thieves, vagabonds. The function of using cant is to serve as a sign of recognition. One, who talks cant, can be trusted by other criminals. Examples can be found in Oliver Twist:

E.g. the bakers – pistols;

the persuader – dagger;

sleep – a sentence from 6 months from 2 years;

The use of dialectal words is confined to a definite locality. Most of them deal with the everyday life of the country (connected with agriculture, sport). Their function in emotive prose is to characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality. Some dialectal words are corruptions of the standard English words (hinny = honey; tittie = sister).

Many dialectal words are of Scottish origin.

aye = yes
ben = mountain
kirk = church
loch = lake
bonny = beautiful
lassie = girl
wee = small
ken = know

Other dialects used for stylistic purposes are: Yorkshire dialect (in Priestley’s “The Good companions”), Missouri dialect (“The adventures of Huckleberry Finn”).

In England, dialects are a matter of class and social standing. At the top of the social range we have the Fraffly dialect (=hyperlect).

Wen sue fraffly glad yourkered calm ( = We are so frightfully glad you could come).

The name o the dialect is based on the aristocratic pronunciation of the word “frightfully” , the peculiar feature – to talk without moving the lips.

Cockney dialect’s phonological peculiarities include:

initial [h] sounds are omitted (‘ave – have), and vice versa – inserted in front of the words beginning with vowels (How awful = ow hawful);
[ei] is substituted by [ai]: fyce = face (Bernard Shaw – Pigmalion).

Vulgarisms are course, rude, emotionally strongly charged words and expressions, which are considered too offensive for polite usage. According to Skrebnev, there are 2 groups: lexical vulgarisms and stylistic vulgarisms.

Lexical vulgarisms include expletives (words that express ideas considered unmentionable in civilized society; their function is the same as of interjections) – damn, bloody, to hell, goddam and swear words – 4-letter words of Anglo-Saxon origin.

Lexical vulgarisms are replaced by:

1. various euphemistic substitutes: Darn it! Son of a gun!

2. abbreviations: NFG, BFD.

Stylistic vulgarisms – words and phrases, the lexical meaning of which has nothing indecent or improper about it. They express a derogatory attitude of a speaker towards the object of speech, a person or an idea.

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