1. The Simple sentence. Structural classification. Communicative types.

1. The Simple sentence. Structural classification. Communicative types.

The sentence is a minimal text unit which may be used in communication to express a complete message.

From the point of view of their structure sentences fall into the following types:

Communicative Types of Sentences

According to their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory sentences.

Declarative sentences ( Declarative sentences, form the bulk of monological speech and the greater part of conversation. A statement may be positive or negative)

I have just come from a business trip.

I haven’t seen my sister yet.

Interrogative sentences ( The communicative function of interrogative sentences consists in asking for information. )

All varieties of questions may be of the following types: General questions

Tag questions, Alternative questions, Suggestive questions(“yes-no” questions)

Pronominal questions (wh- questions)

Imperative sentences ( Imperative sentences express commands. Besides commands proper imperative sentences may express prohibition, a request, an invitation, a warning, persuasion, etc. Formally commands are marked by the predicate verb in the imperative mood, absence of the subject, and the use of the auxiliary do in negative or emphatic sentences with the verb to be: Don’t be afraid of them. Speak louder, please.

Exclamatory sentences ( Exclamatory sentences express ideas emphatically)     What a funny story she told us!                    How beautiful her voice is!

2. The Subject. Ways of expressing the Subj. Structur types.

The subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence. The subject is that which is spoken of.

Ways of expressing the Subject.               The subject can be expressed by these parts of speech and groups of words which are connected with the idea of subjectivity:

1. A noun in the common case or a nominal phrase with a noun: Love filled his soul.

2. A personal pronoun in the nominative case or a nominal phrase with a pronoun: She is a very talkative person.

3. A numeral or a nominal phrase with a numeral: Seven is a lucky number.

4. An infinitive or a gerund: To understand is to forgive.

5. An infinitive phrase or a gerundial phrase: To go on like this was dangerous.

6. An Infinitive predicative construction or a gerundial construction: For me to go there is impossible.

7. A clause, which makes the whole sentence a complex one: What he expected began.

Structural Types of the Subject

Structurally the subject falls into four types: simple, phrasal, complex and clausal.

1. The simple subject is expressed by a single word-form: Smoking is bad for your health.

2. The phrasal subject is expressed by any of the phrases mentioned above (nominal phrases, infinitive phrases, gerundial phrases): To ask him again was impossible.

3. The complex subject is expressed by different predicative complexes:

a) For-to-infinitive constructions: For him to earn bread was a problem.

b) Gerundial constructions: My meeting him again was a surprise.

4. The clausal subject is expressed by a subject clause: Where he lives is unknown to me.

3 “It” and “There” as Subjects of the sentence.

The subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence. The subject is that which is spoken of.

“IT”

The NOTIONAL subject it has two meanings:

1. The personal it (он, она) (We’ve got valuable information. It can explain everything. )

2. The demonstrative it (это) (Who’s that? – It’s Jane. )

The FORMAL it:

1. The impersonal it (weather, time, distance, measurements, and in the sentences describing things in general) (It’s bitterly cold)

2. The introductory it introduces the notional subject expressed by infinitive, gerund, phrase, clause. (It’s costing me a small fortune to send the children on the holiday. )

3. The emphatic it- the structure It was.. (It was Jane who bought a dinner. )

“THERE”

Sentences with there express the existence or coming into existence of a person or non-person denoted by the notional subject.

There + be + indefinite NP (There is a bear sitting in the corner)

A few other verbs can be used after there. If we want to say that smth. seems to be the case or smth. seems to have happened you can use seem or appear. (There seems to be some mistakes. )

In formal English can be used – exist, remain, arise, follow, come. (There comes a time when you have to make a choice. )

5. The category of number. Formation of the plural. Irregular Plurals.

Number - is the form of the noun which shows whether one or more than one object is meant.

Variable nouns are those that may have both the singular and the plural forms. Other nouns are used either only in the sing. or only in the pl. they are called invariable nouns. Variable nouns can be regular plurals and irregular plurals.

IRREGULAR PLURALS.

1. Voicing: 12 nouns ending in –f goes to -v. (wife, life, wolf, calf, knife, half, self, leaf, elf)

Other nouns: -f + -s (belief-beliefs)

-fs & -ves: scarf; handkerchief.

2. Mutation or a change of vowel: man – men; mouse – mice, foot – feet.

3. –en plural: ox – oxen; child- children

4. zero:

-nationality in –ese, -ss: Japanese, Swiss

-quantitative nouns: hundred, million

-nouns in –es: series, species, means, crossroads.

-animal names: sheep, deer, cod, grouse, salmon.

5. Loans: stimulus- stimuli; vertebra- vertebrae, stratum- strata; basis- bases; criterion- criteria; appendix- appendices

6. Invariable singular and invariable plural nouns.

Singular invariable nonus

Number - is the form of the noun which shows whether one or more than one object is meant.

Variable nouns are those that may have both the singular and the plural forms. Other nouns are used either only in the sing. or only in the pl. they are called invariable nouns. They can be singular or pl-al.

Sing.:

-material nouns: sand, water

-abstract nouns: music, homework

-proper names: the Thames, London

-substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notion: the inevitable, the true, the unknown

-some nouns ending in –s: diabetes, billiards, news, aerobics,

Pl.

-words denoting things consisting of two matching parts: glasses, jeans, scissors, spectacles

-miscellaneous nouns: customs, finals, goods, earnings, thanks

-some plural proper names: the Middle Ages, the Midlands, the Hebrides

-unmarked plural nouns: cattle, police, gentry

-substantivized adjectives denoting people: the rich, the poor

8. The category of case. Formation and use. Types of the Genitive case.

Case – is the form of the noun which shows the relation of the noun to other words in the sentence

The genitive case is formed by means of the suffix –‘s or an apostrophe (-‘) alone.

The genitive case is used:

-with personal names: Mary’s house

-with personal nouns: the boy’s pencil

-with collective nouns: the committee’s decision

-with names of higher animals: a cat’s tail

-with geographical names: China’s population

-with the names of newspapers and institutional names: The Gardian’s editorial, the school’s history

-with temporal or distance nouns: a day’s work, yesterday’s report

-with nouns of special interest to human activity: science’s influence, the mind’s general development

-with some inanimate nouns in set expressions: a stone’s throw away, at arm’s length

Group genitive – when –‘s can be added:

-to a group of two coordinated nouns if such a group refers to a single idea: Alex and Andy’s father

-to a more extensive noun phrase: The Prime Minister of Great Britain’s speech

Independent or absolute genitive (without a head-word): Your coat is more fashionable than Ann’s. The baker’s, the hairdresser’s.

Double genitive (-‘s can be combined with an of-phrase): an old friend of my father’s.

7. Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject

Mostly it is about how we use the verb with a subject. In the English language the predicate agrees with the subject in person and number. Agreement implies that the use of one form necessitates the use of the other, for example: a singular subject requires a predicate in the singular, a plural subject requires a predicate in the plural. The following rules of agreement of the predicate with the subject should be observed:

1. The predicate is used in the plural when there are two or more homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunction and or asyndetically. If two or more homogeneous subjects are expressed by infinitives the predicate is in the singular.

2. When the predicate-verb precedes a number of subjects it is often in the singular, especially if the sentence begins with here or there. If the subjects are of different number the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first.

3. When two homogeneous subjects in the singular are connected by the conjunctions not only…but (also), neither…nor, either…or, or, nor, the predicate is usually in the singular. If the subjects are of different person or number, the predicate agrees with the one next to it.

4. When two subjects in the singular are connected by the conjunction as well as the predicate is in the singular. If the subjects are of different person or number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first.

5. If the subject is expressed by a defining, indefinite, or negative pronoun (each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, somebody, someone, something, nobody, no one, nothing, neither, etc. ), the predicate is in the singular.

6. If the subject is expressed by a noun in the plural which is the title of a book, or the name of a newspaper or magazine, the predicate is usually in the singular.

7. If the subject is expressed by a noun in the plural denoting time, measure, or distance, the predicate is in the singular when the noun represents the amount or mass as a whole.

8. If the subject is expressed by a collective not in denoting a group or collection of similar individuals taken as a whole (mankind, humanity, etc. ) the predicate-verb is in the singular.

9. If the subject is expressed by a word-group consisting of two nouns connected by the preposition with, or the expression together with, the predicate- verb is in the singular.
It should be noted that these word-groups are very seldom found in English.

10. If the subject is expressed by the word-group many a… the predicate is in the singular.

11. If the subject is expressed by a group of words denoting arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction, division) the predicate is usually singular.

9. The use of articles with countable nouns. Functions of the article.

1) A countable noun in the singular always requires an article (a/an or the). The indefinite article a/an has the following meanings: one, some, any; one item out of the group of many similar items (ex. I need a pen). The definite article " the" has the following meanings: this, that; the only one; the one that we are speaking about; the one that has already been mentioned. The meaning of the definite article with a plural noun is close to " these, those" (ex. The pen that you gave me doesn't write).

9. The use of articles with countable nouns. Functions of the article.

The main functions of the indefinite article are classifying, generic and numerical.

I. In its classifying function the indefinite article shows that the speaker is characterizing a person … only as a specimen of a certain class of things of the same kind. (I’m a school teacher. )

II. In the generic function … as a representative of the class.

The meaning of the article with sing. nouns is close to every/any. (A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines. )

III. In its numerical function the indefinite article always shows the idea of ‘oneness’:

- with nouns denoting time, measure & weight (for a minute or two)

- with hundred, thousand, million, dozen & score. (a hundred times)

-after the negative not (not a word)

-like at a time, at a gulp, at a draft

-between two noun groups in expressions denoting prices, salaries, speeds. (90 pounds a week)

The definite article in its specifying function serves to single out an object from all other objects of the same kind. The specification is carried out by means of the situation, the preceding context, the meaning of the noun, restrictive attribute.

(1)Situation specification occurs when the speaker is referring to some objects or person he assumes the hearer can identify in the environment they share. (There is someone at the door. )

(2)An object or a group of objects may be specified by the reference to the preceding context. This use with the definite article is called anaphoric. (The three kitten they found their mittens)

(3)The definite article can also indicate unique reference: the sun, the planets, the weather, the devil, the pope.

10. The use of articles with material and abstract nouns

The Use of Articles with Nouns of Material

Abstract nouns: count (answer, belief) & non-count (anger, pride)

1. When non-count abstract nouns have generic reference they are used without any article (quality, state, action). (Knowledge is a power. )

  Also in attributive & adverbial prepositional phrase after of, with, in (A slight feeling of uneasiness came over him).

  No article – nationality & geography (English literature, Moscow time), time (modern physics), degree & authenticity (great value, real importance).

2. Non-count abstract nouns can be used with the indefinite article when they are modified by descriptive attributives (quality, feeling, state) (She looked several years younger and there was a new dignity about her)

The indefinite article is obligatory after certain, curious, peculiar ( a curious influence)

3. Abstract nouns can be used with the definite article:

-Reference backwards: identification is made by something already said. (John laughed and the sound of the laugh was hard)

-Reference forwards: identification is made by smth about to be said. (I was wrapped in the security of childhood. – of-phrase; He apologetic laugh did not disguise the pleasure that he felt. – attributive clause.

4. Some abstract nouns are never used with the indefinite article: weather, money, news, work, luck, fun. (I found it difficult to understand English money), advice, applause, guidance, information, progress…)

5. Nouns pity, pleasure, comfort, relief, shame are regularly used with the indefinite article. (It’s a shame to act like this; What a pity! )

The use of articles with material nouns.

1. When names of material have generic reference they are used without any article. (This is lead, not silver)

  Names of material can change their meaning and become count nouns when they denote:

-various sorts of material & food products (a good wine)

-a portion of food or drink (an ice)

-an object made of some sort of material (a small tin)

2. Material nouns can be used with the definite article:

-Reference backwards: identification is made by something already said. (Here a glass, some water and three coins. Watch! I pour the water into the glass, then drop the coins into the water)

-Reference forwards: identification is made by smth about to be said. (The water in this glass has now turned pink. – a limiting prepositional phrase; He poured the fragrant golden wine that accompanied the lobster. – restrictive relative attributive clause)

11. The use of articles with names of persons and geogr. names.

The use of articles with names of person.

1. Normaly, a personal name of someone imagined as unique, needs no determiner. (Anthony)

Personal names preceded by nouns denoting titles, ranks, Dr. or family relations take no article. (Lord Byron)

2. The definite article is used:

-With a family name in the plural denoting the whole family. (The Smiths)

-When names of persons are modified by of-phrase or attributive clause. (This Pat wasn’t at all like the Pat of his memories. )

-When names of persons have description (The gentle Mrs. Snobbe)

Little, old, young, dear, poor, honest – no article.

- When the speaker wishes to show that the person is the very one (Do you mean the Shakespeare or smb else? )

3. The indefinite article is used:

-one member of the family (His mother was a Smith)

-a certain person, normally unknown to the hearer (The Colonel was introduced to a Mrs. Bilst)

- a name is modified by an adjective to show the mood (An infuriated Jenifer)

Geographical names

1. Names of continents, countries, states, cities and towns are normally used without articles, even if described. (North America, modern France)

2. With the definite article: the Antarctic, Arctic, Argentine, Caucasus, Crimea, Netherlands…

3. With the definite article if of-phrase or attributive clause: the England of today.

4. An indefinite article if – descriptive attribute bringing out a certain aspect: A very cheerful England.

5. Names of oceans, seas, rivers and lakes usually take the definite article: the Atlantic, Baltic, Volga, Ontario (lake Baikal)

6. Names of desert – with the definite article: The Sahara

7. Names of mountain chains – with the definite article: The Alps, Andes

8. Names of mountain peaks – without articles: Elbrus, Everest

9. the + common noun + of + proper noun: The Gulf of Mexico

10. Names of universities where the first part is a place-name usually have 2 forms: the University of London – London University.

12. The use of articles with predicative nouns and nouns in apposition.

1. predicative and appositive nouns are used with the classifying indefinite article which shows that the speaker is characterizing a person, object or event as a specimen of a certain class of thing. With plural nouns no article is used. (She is really an excellent creature but a complete fool, as I said. )

2. If there is a limiting modifier, predicative and appositive nouns are used with the definite article. (Philip had been the hero of his childhood. )

3. If predicative and appositive nouns denote the position (rank, state, post or occupation) which is unique, i. e. can be occupied by one person at a time, either no article or the definite article is used. These nouns are often used after the verbs to appoint, to choose, to elect, to become and some others. (Mr. Henderson is manager, not under-manager any longer. )

When talking about a person rather than describing someone’s role you need an article. ( The Queen is strongly against the project. )

The absence of article in set expressions with the verb to turn: to turn traitor, to turn miser, to turn pirate.

4. The nouns son and daughter predicatively and appositively generally take the definite article when modified by an of-phrase if they express mere relationship. (She is the daughter of a doctor. )

                   If the speaker wants to emphasize the idea that there are several sons and daughter in the family, the indefinite article is used. (She is a daughter of a doctor. )

5. No article is used in structures with enough where predicative nouns acquire an adjectival character, denoting a certain characteristic of the person in question. (Surely Bella isn’t fool enough to believe that sort of stuff? )

6. The article is also omitted when predicative nouns are used in clauses of concession with inverted word order. ( Child as he was, his judgement was sound. )

7. If the appositive noun denotes a well-known person or work of art, the definite article is generally used. (John Galsworthy, the famous English writer, was of a Devonshire family. )

But if the person or work of article is not widely known, the indefinite article is used. (“Pericles”, a comedy by Shakespeare, is hardly ever staged. )

13. The Verb Complementation (Intransitive and Link verbs)

The predicate is the verbal component of a sentence or clause which expresses a state, an action, or an event.

Complements – words or phrases added to a verb to complete the predicate, without which sentences would be incomplete or have a different meaning. (All the men wore dark suits. )

Intransitive verbs denote actions and events which involve only one person or thing, the performer of the action.

1. Pure intransitives (appear, fade, rise, rain) (It’s raining)

Verbs of position such as be, belong, hand, lie, live, remain, sit, stand, stay and the verbs of movement such as come, crawl, flow, go, run, stroll, travel, walk require a complement denoting place, direction or time. (He strolled towards the bar. )

2. Verbs used both transitively and intransitively.

a)when we are contrasting two actions (We gave, he took)

-if you use a list of different verbs for emphasis or contrast (She had ceased to love as she once loved)

-or if the referent of the object is clearly understood. (It’s dangerous to drive if you have been drinking. )

b) Some verbs can be intransitively, followed by the object without the origin performer being mentioned. (Suddenly the door opened. )

Ergative verbs refer to food and cooking (bake, boil, cook, fry, roast, simmer) (The rise is cooking)

2. COPULAR (LINK) VERBS

Copular verbs take one complement and serve as a link to what the referent of the subject is or becomes. The complement of a copular verb is often called the subject complement and can be expressed by a noun, or a prepositional phrase. The most common copular (link) verb is be.

Copular verbs can be sensory (look, feel, smell, sound, taste); situational (remain, keep, seem, appear) or refer to a process of becoming or changing (become, get, grow, turn, prove, come, turn out, end up). e. g. The reason is simple.

Verbs referring to a process of becoming or change of state usually occur in certain fixed idiomatic expressions.

Get angry/ excited/ wet. Become ambitious. Come loose(расшататься) / come undone (расстегнуться) / come true (исполниться) Fall asleep / sick / ill. Go sour (прокиснуть) / bad (испортиться) / mad (сойти с ума) / bankrupt (обанкротиться) / red (покраснеть)

There are a small number of verbs which are usually intransitive, but can be transitive when used with one particular object, a cognate object. The object is directly related to the verb.

15. The Adjective. Degrees of comparison. Means of intensification

Adjectives are words expressing properties and characteristics of objects (e. g. blue, simple, progressive, etc. ) and, hence, qualifying nouns.                    Grammatically, four features are generally considered to be characteristic of adjectives: 1) their syntactic function of attributes; 2) their syntactic function of predicatives; 3) their taking of adverbial modifiers of degree (e. g. very); 4) their only grammatical category — the degrees of comparison. Adjectives in English do not change for number or case.

Degrees of Comarison. There are three degrees of comparison: positive (or absolute), comparative and superlative. There are three ways of forming the comparative and the superlative degrees: synthetic, analytical and suppletive.

Synthetic: by adding the suffix –er to the comparative degree and the suffix -est to the superlative degree. Types of adjectives forming their degrees of comparison in a synthetic way: 1) monosyllabic: great ― greater ― greatest;      2) disyllabic: ending in –y; -ow; -le; -er; -some.

14. The Verb Complementation (Monotransitive and Ditransitive verbs)

The predicate is the verbal component of a sentence or clause which expresses a state, an action, or an event.

Ditransitive verbs take two objects, a direct object and an indirect one. These verbs denote actions which involve someone in addition to the people or things that are the subject and object of the sentence. (I gave John a book. : John is indirect and book – direct). Ditransitive verbs can also take one object followed by a predicate complement (It reminds me of Italy. )

The possible realizations of these two main complementation patterns can be summarized as follows:

Indirect Object + Direct Object (He gave Esther a present. )

Object + Predicate Complement (He wished me success. )

NG (noun group)+ infinitive phrase (He told us to sit down. )

 Monotransitive verbs describe events which in addition to the subject involve someone or something else. (Children seek independence. )

Here is a list of some verbs which are monotransitive: achieve, create, favour, maintain, rent, address, damage, get…

Intrans. – trans. when a cognate object (one particular object) Ex: He smiled a patient smile.

• Some verbs are always followed by a gerund, gerundial phrase or gerundial predicative complex: delay, deny, detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, fancy, finish, imagine. She denied having stolen the money.

• Other verbs are used with an infinitive, infinitive phrase or infinitive construction: afford, claim, hesitate, plan, agree, decide, intend, pretend, aim.    

 • A few verbs can be used with either a gerund or an infinitive without altering the meaning of the verb: attempt, cease, fear, love, begin, continue, hate, prefer, bother.

• With a few verbs the meaning is altered depending on whether you use a gerund or an infinitive: -If you go on to do smth, you subsequently start doing it. -If you go on doing smth, you continue to do it. -If you remember to do smth, you have to do it at the present time. -If you remember doing sth, you did it in the past.

Monotransitive verbs also take a prepositional object. Many verbs have a particular proposition in a particular meaning: plot against, spy on, dictate to, complain of, appeal for.  

18. The object. Ways of expressing the object

Objects: direct (He wrote the article)

indirect (I'll show you the garden);

prepositiona l(You can rely on Tom)

Complement: subject (Bill is a policeman)

object (I found the map helpful)

predicate (The fare costs $150. I wish you success)

THE DIRECT OBJECT is the single prepositional object of a monotransitive verb ( I wrote a poem) or one of the two objects of a ditransitive verb that has no prepositional paraphrase (They sent me a telegram). It can become subject in a passive clause (The poem was written. A telegram was sent to me. )

THE INDIRECT OBJECT is one of two objects of a ditransitive verb that has a prepositional paraphrase (They sent me a telegram. They sent a telegram to me). It become subject in a passive clause (I was sent a telegram). Indirect objects denoting recipient of the action directly involved in the process can be replaced by a to-phrase (We paid them the money. We paid the money to them. )

Indirect objects denoting beneficiaries(for whose sake the action is carried out) correspond to a phrase with the preposition for ( I'll get you some coffee. I'll get some coffee for you. )

THE PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT is an object introduced by a preposition. The nominal element following the preposition can become subject in a passive clause (We agreed on the plan. )

THE COGNATE OBJECT is a special type of obj. which is the only non-prepositional object of an otherwise intransitive verb and is always expressed by nouns derived from, or semantically related to, the root of the verb (The child smiled the smile and laughed the laugh of contentment. )

THE SUBJECT COMPLEMENT is the obligatory constituent which follows a link verb (be, seem, feel, get, become, go, grow, turn, sound, smell, look, etc. ) and cannot be made subject in a passive clause. The subject compl. denotes:

1)the attribute of the subject (She is 22 years old. He is a very lucky man. )

2) its identity (The Rolsinsons are our neighbours. )

3) a circumstance (The exam is next Tuesday. He is in a doog mood. )

THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT refers to the direct object and denotes:

1)identity (They appointed him Manager. )

2) attribute (We found the secretary helpful. )

3) circumstances (I like them on toast. Do you take me for a genius? )

THE PREDICATE COMPLEMENT is the obligatory constituent of the clause which refers to the predicate and become the subject of the passive clause. Predicate compl. can follow:

relation verbs,

verbs of measure,

verbs which denote a manner of movement, miscellaneous verbs like complain, wish.

20 The Adverbial Modifier. Ways of expressing. Semantic classes. Structural types.

(1)From the point of view of structure, the use of adverbials may be optional (non-obligatory) or obligatory

OPTIONAL provide additional information; they are part of the structure of the sentence, but they are not assential to the structure (Sometimes the children played by the lake. )

OBLIGATORY when the sentence structure demands one or when their absence changes the meaning of the verb. (He behaved bravely)

(2)From point of view of their relation to the modified parts of the sentence, adverbials may be non-detached and detached

DETACHED are more loosely related to the modified parts, they are never obligatory and separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. (He saw the boat, its decks deserted. )

(3)From the point of view of their function, adv-s can be classified as conjuncts, disjuncts and adjuncts.

Adjunct provides additional information and is a part of the structure of the sentence (Gwendolen did her work perfectly. )

Conjunct is an adv. whose function is to form a logical link between what is said in one sentence and what is said in the next. Here belong: additive (similarity), adversative: (yet), causal: (therefore, then), temporal: ( next)… (Yet Gwendolen always did her work. )

Disjunct is an adv. coming at the begining of the sentence and expressing the speaker's attitude towards the statement he is about to make. Here belong: Broadly speaking…; Undoubtedly…; Medically… (Naturally, he liked us very much. )

(4) From the point of view of their semantics, adverbial adjuncts may be of several semantic classes which may be identified directly (absolutely) by their lexical meaning or indirectly (relatively).

Semantic classes:

1. of Place (He lives far from his parents)

2. of Time ( We owned an Alsation dog once. )

3. of Manner ( with, without, by, by means of, with the help of)(Hooper danced badly, but energetically. )

4. of Cause (reason) ( because of, due to, owing to) (Thanks to my parents I got a decent education)

5. of Result ( too, enough, sufficiently, so... (as))(It is too cold to go out)

6. of Purpose ( in order, so as, for) ( Jane has come to help us. )

7. of Condition (but for, except for, without,

if, unless) (Without faith there can be no cure. )

8. of Concession ( nevertheless, in spite of this/that, in spite of, despite, for all, with all, though, if ) ( With all his faults, I like him. )

9. of Exception ( but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of) ( These men were quite civil save during certain weeks of autumn and winter. )

10. of Comparison ( like, than, as, as if, as though)

 (A mountain is higher than a hill. )

11. Of Degree ( The story is extremely long. )

12. of Attendant Circumstances and Subsequent Events (We walked three miles without meeting anyone. )

19. Predicative construction that function as Object.

They can be called Objective constructions.

OBJ. CONSTR. WITH VERBALS

The obj. with the Inf. Constr.

It' usually used as a direct to verbs ( I did not want him to see me there). However, it may also occur in the function of an indirect non-recipient object ( I was relying on him to put things right with father. )

The Use of the Objective with the Inf. Constr. as a Direct Object

Verbs which may take the objective with the inf. constr. as a direct obj. are of two kinds:

1)Those that require the inf. with the particle TO

2)Those that require the bare inf

1-a) Verbs of wish and intention (to wish, to want, to desire, to choose, to prefer, should/would like, to intend, to mean). (He would like you to see him in his office. )

b) Verbs of attitude (to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, cannot/could not bear). (I can't bear people to be unhappy or upset. )

c) Verbs of mental activity (to think, to suppose, to consider, to believe, to know, to feel, to trust, etc. ). (He believed Jennie to be playing in the garden) (I know myself to be rather slow)

d) Verbs of declaring (to declare, to report, to pronounce). (Everybody pronounced him to be a complete failure. )

e) Verbs of inducement (to order, to command, to ask, to allow, etc. ) (She would not allow the life of the child to be risked. )

2- The verbs of the second group belong to one semantic group only, namely that of sense perception (to see, to hear, to feel, to observe, to notice (We saw planes zoom into the air. )

The use of the Obj. with the Inf. Constr. as an Indirect Non-perfect Object.

It may be used with a few verbs as their indirect non-recipient object. These verbs are to wait (for), to rely (on), to listen (to), to look (for), to count (upon). All of them except the verb to listen take the infinitive with the particle to. With the verb to listen a bare infinitive is used (Can I really count upon him to undertake the job? )

The Objective with Participle 1 Construction

It can be used with verbs of three semantic groups:

1. Verbs of sense perception (the most important group) (There we saw the crocodiles swimming about)

2. Verbs of wish. (Nobody wanted him going there alone)

3. The causative verbs to have and to get (He got them running his errands every day)

The Objective with Participle II Construction

It can be attached to verbs of four semantic groups:

1. Verbs of sense perception (I heard my name echoed in the distance)

2. A few verbs of mental activity (to think, to believe, to consider, to remember) –(At first she thought Johnny killed)

3. Verbs of wish (Nobody wanted it done in such a way)

4. The causative verbs TO HAVE and TO GET. (How do you think the men would havetheir wounds dressed, getthemselves washed, havetheir beds made if nobody worked on a Sun­day? )

OBJECTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH NON-VERBALS

two types can be distinguished:

1. Objective constructions which can follow only some verbs of mental activity and sense perception

(I thought it a wonderful opportunity)

2. Objective constructions which follow certain causative verbs. (to have, to get)

24. Complex sentences. Nominal clauses.

1)A subject clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own. It can be introduced by that, if, whether, because, the way, whether … or; who, what, whatever; where, wherever, when, how, why (What caused the accident was a mystery. )

When a subject clause is in final position we use the introductory it. (It makes me sick the way she’s always complaining. )

2)A predicative / complement clause functions as predicative/subject complement to the link/copular verb within the main clause. It may be introduced by that, whether, whether …or, as, lest, the way, who, whoever, which, where, why. (I couldn’t move my legs. It was as if they were stuck to the floor)

The predicative clause may follow the main clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation either directly or by means of comparison. (It appears that I was wrong)

3)An object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally to nouns. It may be introduced by that, if, whether, whether.. or, lest, who, whoever, what, which, where, how, why. (He left wondering what had really happened)

4). An appositive clause refers to a noun either with a very general meaning or requiring additional information. To these nouns belong thing, reason, point, moral, comment, remark, idea, fact, feature etc. the clause may be introduced by that, if, whether, as if, as though, how, why. It’s not separated by a comma and cannot be joined asyndetically. (The reason why she didn’t get the job was that her English was not very good)

26. Complex sentences. Adverbial clauses.

1)An adverbial clause of place defines the place or the direction of the action expressed in the principal clause. It may be introduced by the conjunctions where, whence, wherever, everywhere (that). (Everywhere I went, people were angry or suspicious)

3)An adverbial clause of time characterizes the action expressed in the main clause from the temporal point of view. An adverbial clause of time may be introduced by conjunctions: as, as soon as, as long as, when, whenever, while, now that, till, until, after, before, since and frasal conjunctions: the time (that), the day (that), the moment, the instant, next time, every (each) time, directly, immediately, instantly, once. (He saw her as he was getting of f the bus)

3)An adverbial clause of manner characterizes actions, states, qualities, circumstances. The most common conjunctions to introduce them are as and the way, in a wan, in the way. (I don't understand why he behaves as he does. )

4)An adverbial clause of comparison characterizes the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause by comparing it with some real or hypothetical circumstance or action. They may be introduced by the conjunctions as, like, as if, as though, than, the correlative conjunctions as... as, so... as, as-as if. (She's got longer hair than I have)

5)An adverbial clause of condition contains some condition (either real or unreal) which makes the action in the main clause possible. It may be introduced by conjunctions: if, unless, once, in case. There are also several conjunctions with that: provided (that), providing (that), suppose (that), supposing (that, seeing (that). (If he told you that, he was lying)

6)An adverbial clause of concession contrasts with the content of the main clause: the action or fact described in the main clause is carried out or takes place despite the action or state expressed in the subordinate clause. This type of clause is introduced by conjunctions: although, though, if; conjunctive pronouns or adverbs: whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever; or composite conjunctions: no matter how, no matter what, for all that, despite that, in spite of the fact, despite the fact (I had to accept the fact, improbable though/as it was)

7)An adverbial clause of purpose expresses the purpose of the action which is stated in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, so, lest, in order that, for fear that. (Bring it closer so (that) I can see it better)

8)An adverbial clause of cause expresses the reason, cause, or motivation of the action expressed in the main clause or of its content as a whole. Causative clauses may be introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, so, that, lest, seeing (that), considering', or by the composite conjunctions for the reason that, in view of the fact that, inasmuch as, insofar as. (As she has no car, she can't get there easily)

9)An adverbial clause of result denotes some consequences or result of the action expressed in the main clause. It may be introduced by the conjunctions so that or that. Result clauses always come after the main clause. (We turned the radio up, so that everyone heard the announcement)

25. Complex sentences. Attributive clauses.

Attributive clauses function as modifiers to a word of nominal character, which is generally called the antecedent. An attributive clause may be introduced by connectives — relative pronouns (who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as) or relative adverbs {when, where, whence, wherein). The choice of the relative word depends on the antecedent:

a)If the antecedent denotes a living being, the relative pronoun, whom, whose, or that is used. (Do you know the people who/that live here? )

b) If the antecedent denotes a thing or notion, the relative word which, whose, or that is used. (They are producing a new computer, whose low cost will make it very attractive to students)

c) If the antecedent is expressed by everything, something, anything or nothing the relative pronoun that is generally used. (I've forgotten everything (that) I learnt at school)

d)If the antecedent is modified by the demonstrative pronoun such, the relative pronoun as is used. ( Such accommodation as she could find was expensive)

e)Attributive clauses Joined by the relative adverbs when, where, whence refer to antecedents denoting time or place. (This is the building where I work)

TYPES OF ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES

Restrictive/defining clauses identify more closely what the noun refers to. If you say I met the woman- not right. I met the woman who/ that lives next door. Restrictive relative clauses can be used after indefinite pronouns such as someone, anyone, everything. ( This is something I’m very proud of. )

Non-defining relative clauses give further information which is not needed to identify the person, thing or group you are talking about. If you say I saw June Fowler, it is clear, but else: I saw June Fowler, who was staying at the hotel opposite

29. The conditional Mood. Formation. Use in Simple & Compl. Sent.

Sould/Would + infinitive

The cond. mood represents an action as contradicting reality.

Simple Sentence

The CM is used to denote unreal action:

a) with an adverbial modifier of condition expressed by a but-for phrase. (He would not have come, but for me)

b) with implied condition (I wouldn’t waste my time on rubbish in your place)

c) to sound more polite, less straightforward (I should very much object to you reading trashy novels)

Complex Sentence

In principal clauses with the subordinate clauses of unreal condition or unreal concession (where S-II is used). I should never forgive myself if I profited by his generosity.

© helpiks.su При использовании или копировании материалов прямая ссылка на сайт обязательна.