Principles 13 страница

(Youth United for Change 2005, 12): ‘‘My teacher urged me to join. He knows I’m an outspoken person and I love justice, ’’ said Derrick Smith, a blunt and articulate tenth-grader at Olney High. Thus, beyond holding a strong passion for justice, youth must have a sense of individual and col-lective efficacy—a belief that their efforts can result in progressive social change.

A certain degree of resocialization must transpire to transform feelings of powerlessness or personal inefficacy into a desire for change and a belief in taking part in social action (Pecukonis and Wenocur 1994). This process can be painful, but it takes place within the context of organizational campaigns for social change. In fact, this process or stage of development occurs among most youth, so it becomes only a question of degree and is quite normal-izing in youth-led community organizing. Youth who recognized and ac-cept these stages will well serve themselves and any campaigns by devel-oping a greater awareness and understanding of social change at individual and macro levels.

Questioning the Status Quo

A willingness to risk the consequences of questioning the status quo is a quality often found in community organizers and is not restricted to one age group. Yet there is an awareness that questioning, regardless of its legiti-macy, is looked at differently if the questioning individual is an adult or a youth:

Youth who excel as leaders among their peers, in street organizations or street economies, or youth who are seen by adults as troublemakers, often respond to youth organizing even as they remain skeptical of more tra-ditional programs. Youth organizing capitalizes on their street smarts, entrepreneurial spirit, their questioning of authority, and legitimate frustration with things the way they are. (Open Society Institute 1997, 6)

Youth-led organizing is a vehicle for marginalized young people to act collectively with peers to challenge the policies and procedures of main-stream institutions that negatively impact their lives. When youth willing to question the status quo come into contact with other youth with a similar orientation, the personal change is transformative, placing this characteristic in a broader group context.

Ability to Work with Peers and Various Social Systems

Strong interpersonal skills are essential for effective leadership in all types of community organizing, including collective action that is youth-led. The most successful leaders are able to work with other activists as a team, embracing participatory democratic processes, pursuing common goals,

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and sharing responsibilities, as well as credit for organizational achieve-ments (Staples 2004a). They also are able to navigate their way through different settings and institutions (Tolman and Pittman 2001).

Most organizational activities take place within the context of small groups, where emerging youth leaders develop and refine the interactive skills that are essential components of their leadership tool box. As with the characteristic of willingness to question the status quo, described above, working within a group or team whose members share this perspective helps youth organizers operate within a sociopolitical reality that has not existed in the home or school.

Willingness to Work with Adult Allies

The roles that adults play and their influence on the youth-led movement, including community organizing, invariably results in ambivalent feelings on the part of youth (Jennings et al. 2006). Because adults usually have authority and can considerably influence the lives of youth, they tend to be the prime target for most youth-led organizing efforts. However, it is nec-essary for youth leaders to be able to work productively with adults and not turn every instance of adultism into a confrontation.

Most youth leaders develop the capacity to work effectively with adults through direct experience in a variety of settings. This ability to work across age groups will serve them well, in both immediate campaigns and in the future, when they are adults themselves. For example, their ability as adults to work with youth and adults older than they are will open up great possibilities for intergenerational organizing campaigns that will yield tre-mendous benefits across communities. Further, as Halpern (2005) has found, youth, particularly those who are marginalized and live in the inner city, can benefit from positive relationships with adults.

Eagerness to Learn

Eagerness to learn is a quality necessary to any meaningful participation and is not restricted to the young or to youth-led community organizing. This quality manifests in many different ways among young people and also involves a different dimension—namely, the different learning styles of youth. Young people learn a wide variety of skills when they take on leadership roles in community organizing initiatives. As will be discussed in chapter 7, there are numerous ways that this quality can be assessed, par-ticularly during the training phase.

Eccles and Gootman (2002, 299), in their comprehensive review of community programs to promote youth development, conclude that young people need to be provided with opportunities to gain a variety of experi-ences that will enable them to develop their maximum potential. However,

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according to Eccles and Gootman, this learning is not limited to academic subjects. Introducing multicultural activities into youth organizing will enhance learning, recruit potential organizers, and inform the at-large community (Checkoway 1998).

The Hazen Foundation, based in New York City, was established in 1915 and seeks to ‘‘assist young people, particularly minorities and those dis-advantaged by poverty, to achieve their full potential as individuals and as active participants in a democratic society. ’’ In 2005, the Hazen Foundation made over $1. 2 million in grants to community organizations and youth organizing groups.

A survey of Hazen-funded projects identified five categories of leader-ship competencies, ranked in order of highest gains: (1) relationship skills (conflict resolution, accountability, mutual support); (2) organizing ability (how to influence school or community issues); (3) communication (listen-ing, public speaking, writing); (4) critical thinking (analytical and imagi-native problem-solving); and (5) basic literacy (reading) (Scheie 2003). As the reader will no doubt realize, the ability to learn is integrally related to all of these leadership competencies. Learning, in essence, is a lifelong process, and youth leaders who can embrace this idea and convey an appreciation for learning to the whole group perform a public service that goes beyond an organizing campaign in the here and now!

Willingness to Take Calculated Risks

Community organizing often conjures up images of mass rallies, with participants being arrested. While youth-led organizing activities sel-dom lead to actual arrests, youth still must be prepared to take risks. In many instances they are challenging established systems, which have the capacity for strong negative reactions. Because of the limited rights youth have in this society, the possibilities for retribution cannot be mini-mized.

The experience recounted by one youth activist, cited in a California Tomorrow report, unfortunately is not uncommon (Cervone 2002, 13): ‘‘It was hard for us to go on campus to do our organizing because [the assistant principal] was always there giving us a hard time. . . . She’d give youth a hard time, calling them ‘trouble makers. ’ Teachers would give us a hard time too. ’’ It is important to note, however, that youth who are overly interested in taking risks and engaging in conflict without serious delib-erations represent a serious risk to any youth-led campaign, as with risk-taking adults in adult campaigns. The screening and training pro-cesses are excellent points at which to assess this propensity in youth and to address it.

Taking calculated risks does not guarantee no consequences for youth; in fact, taking calculated risks highlights the challenges associated with

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relationship-building models of organizing (Sherwood and Dressner 2004). Consequently, it is important for youth leaders to examine the possible consequences of their actions for members of the campaign and to establish a climate in which youths’ fears about such consequences can be aired in a supportive atmosphere.

Willingness to Be a Mentor and to Mentor

Youth-led community organizing is an approach to social change that his-torically has not been taught in academic classrooms. Consequently, train-ing in the field has almost exclusively been through a range of methods such as apprenticeship, advisement, and workshops, conveying the skills and knowledge necessary to effectively undertake community organizing. How-ever, mentoring as a method stands out because of its emphasis on personal interaction and mutual trust.

There is no consensus on a definition of mentoring, even though the past twenty-five years have produced a prodigious amount of scholarship on the subject (Hardley 2004). Mentoring can be explained as a process through which knowledge, attitudes, and skills are imparted via a relationship be-tween at least two individuals, one being a mentee and the other being the mentor. Although mentoring very often is specifically designed to impart a set of knowledge and skill goals, it also involves emotional and social ele-ments. Although the definition of mentoring used in this book appears rather simple and straightforward, in reality mentoring is a multifaceted and complex process. Further, mentoring can transpire informally, without explicit expectations, or formally, with an explicit agreement that covers the nature and content of the process.

Hardley (2004) notes that mentoring must bring together critical ele-ments to be effective, including a focus on the young person’s needs; rec-ognition that mentoring is essentially about relationships; and an emphasis on the close connection between mentoring and the wider community, whereby effective mentoring both develops and strengthens many levels of community partnerships. Hardley’s (2004) assessment of effective mentor-ing makes this approach conducive to youth-led community organizing and other forms of youth-led interventions. The importance of mentoring, therefore, is such that it cannot and should not be separated from leadership development. The long-term sustainability of movements for social justice, and not just for civil rights and racial justice organizations, very much depends on effective leadership development among young people (Kim and Sherman 2006). The close relationship between mentoring and leader-ship development highlights the multifaceted way that leadership devel-opment can occur.

The field of youth development has addressed the role and importance of mentoring (Saito and Blyth 1995). As with the other concepts covered in this

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book, there is wide variation in definition and type. Rhodes, Grossman, and Roffman (2002), for example, have identified various approaches to men-toring, such as (1) school-based; (2) work-based; (3) agency-based; (4) re-ligious-based; and (5) e-mentoring (online).

The goals associated with mentoring must not be limited to the incul-cation of specific knowledge and skills—in this case, community organiz-ing. Effective youth mentoring must embrace a broad set of goals that go beyond specific knowledge and skills acquisition. It must also address emotional, moral, spiritual, and physical elements that complement cogni-tive goals (Rhodes, Grossman, and Roffman 2002). Youth mentoring, in addition, is not restricted to one time or one place. In essence, youth men-toring in community organizing often takes place when interactions are happening. These events become teachable or mentoring moments, because they capture the excitement of the event and the time. They also introduce the importance of doing and learning at the same time, which is how most learning occurs. The process of critical consciousness, for example, gets highlighted during these interactions.

One final note on mentoring is in order, and it is the issue of whether to go with established leaders (who soon will age out) when the stakes are high or to give responsibility to untested emerging leaders. Mentoring is an ideal relationship to enhance the leadership skills of youth who show extraordi-nary potential for playing visible roles in youth-led community organizing. It allows for the transfer of critical knowledge (cognitive as well as emo-tional) from the mentor to the mentee. But mentoring relationships can prove quite labor-intensive, because every effort must be made to facilitate close contact between the parties. Strategic decisions must be made as to the amount of emphasis and resources to be spent on one or several youth leaders, and at what cost to other youth organizers. It is essentially a zero-sum decision, one that must never be made without serious deliberation because of its implications for an organization. It may be tempting, for ex-ample, to focus on an immediate campaign, with the perceived value of achieving significant results. To achieve these results, several youth leaders may be singled out for attention. However, from an organizational per-spective, emphasizing the present may mean sacrificing the future. This dilemma is not restricted to a particular region of the country or type of social action.

There is little question that the field of youth-led community organizing, like its adult counterpart, cannot ignore the subject of leadership without realizing serious consequences. The field of youth-led organizing must contend with all of the benefits and detriments associated with embracing any definition and philosophy of leadership. The tension between imme-diate success and long-term greater good is inherent in any form of social action; however, it takes on greater significance in the field of youth orga-nizing because of the inevitable aging out of its leadership.

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Conclusion

This chapter has provided the reader with a broad perspective on youth leadership and has done this against the backdrop of youth development. The qualities that indicate good leadership potential outlined in this chapter should not be viewed from an either/or perspective. The proper perspective is that all youth have potential leadership qualities and it is just a question of degree as to who will serve the field best and will capitalize on youth assets in the process. Some readers may argue that leaders are born and not made. We subscribe to the theory that some may be born leaders, but most are made leaders through opportunity.

Recruitment, Chapter Screening, Preparation, and Support of Youth-Led Community Organizers

Social change does not come easily, and in-volving young people won’t make it easier. But it will make it better.

—Wheeler, Maximizing Opportunities for Young People (2005)

The sustainability of youth-led organizing is tightly tied to the ability of sponsoring organizations and organizing leaders or facilitators to recruit, screen, train, and support young people in their roles as organizers. Failure to perform these roles adequately increases the likelihood that the goals of youth-led organizing either will not be met or will be carried out only par-tially. The success of a social intervention never rests on a single phase of the endeavor. All aspects must receive attention and resources. For example, it never is advisable to omit a particular stage for the sake of expediency or with the intention of dealing with it later, when time permits. While this observation does not mean that practitioners may not have their favorite phases, we contend that attention must be paid to all parts of a social in-tervention. Therefore, this chapter focuses on four essential areas that should be addressed when new youth community organizers are selected, devel-oped, and sustained.

Although leadership in youth organizing has been discussed in chapter 6, this concept takes on dimensions additional to those associated with adults, especially since the role of leader-organizer (Staples 2004a) is typical in so many youth organizations. This model combines both leadership and or-ganizing functions in the same individual, who usually holds a paid staff

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position. Therefore, the field of youth-led organizing embraces a definition of leadership that is multifaceted, transcends traditional views, and pre-pares young people to assume roles as community organizers, including recruiters, motivators, counselors, agitators, consolidators, facilitators, fund-raisers, strategists, and tacticians. However, as with adults, most youth cannot be expected to discharge all of these duties with equal ability and enthusiasm. These roles must be performed adequately in order for a youth-led organizing campaign to achieve success. But how these responsibilities are balanced, who carries them out, and what supports need to be in place to do so vary according to local circumstances (Walker 2003).

There is a rich body of knowledge and set of skills to help individuals function effectively in the role of organizer. If a person does not possess the requisite information and expertise at the beginning of an organizing ex-perience, she or he eventually must learn it, as is the case for any other fields of practice. The qualities that determine effective youth leaders, outlined in chapter 6, are the foundation upon which to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to be successful organizers in the youth-led field. Organi-zational resources must be allocated to assess the assets of potential young activists as well as their aspirations and needs. Then youth organizations must provide sufficient opportunities for these young activists to achieve personal growth and professional development.

The capacities and competencies of youth-led organizing often contrib-ute to a leader’s personal development as well, and even can shape ultimate career choices. Unfortunately, as noted by Mizrahi (1993), community or-ganizing is not a well-known career choice for many potential organizers. This lack of awareness seriously limits the potential pool of applicants who seek this field as a career choice. In spite of this, community organizing is a viable career option that embraces a variety of job titles, educational qual-ifications, and functions (Mizrahi 1993).

The field of community organizing is not for everyone. As a career choice, it may be viable for only a select number of young people who become involved in youth-led projects. Nevertheless, even for those not in-terested in a long-term career in organizing, the skills and knowledge that are learned can be transferred to other occupations. Youth-led organizing as a form of civic participation can be especially fertile ground for those who eventually choose to work in other aspects of public service (Wheeler 2003).

The W. K. Kellogg Foundation (2000, 14), in a comprehensive assessment of the field, identified a series of strategies for recruiting, training, and sup-porting youth:

Understanding how young people will benefit the organization

Giving young people real, significant things to do and holding them ac-countable

RECRUITMENT, SCREENING, PREPARATION, AND SUPPORT

Actively recruiting young people

Connecting directly with young people’s experiences and concerns Letting young people know what is expected of them

Letting young people know they are making a difference Investing in training and ongoing support for young people for the

long term.

This chapter addresses these recommendations and others that are intended to ensure that youth-led organizing gets the necessary support to carry out its vision of achieving social and economic justice. Two of the topics (recruitment and preparation) have received considerable attention when compared to another (screening). This reflects the great variability in screen-ing methods that is a consequence of allowing local circumstances to dictate what is important for an organization. We believe there is considerably more literature on recruitment and preparation because there is less var-iability in the field.

Recruitment

The importance of effective recruitment to any form of social intervention should not be underestimated, and youth-led community organizing is no exception, especially because it is fueled by the power of numbers. Both the for-profit and not-for-profit worlds have come to realize the importance of effective recruitment strategies (Charles 2005; Cutler 2002). This interven-tion phase involves a wide variety of activities and competencies, as well as a clear vision of the qualities that young people must possess in order to become effective organizers. When recruitment specifically targets youth who essentially have disengaged from mainstream arenas such as school, structured recreational activities, employment, and even families, it takes on added challenges and reaps additional rewards (Besharov 1999; Kim and Sherman 2006).

One very experienced youth-organizing leader mentioned a different dimension of recruitment, one that can be found throughout the country (Youth Organizing 1998, 5): ‘‘A significant challenge for youth organizing is the fluidity of an inherently changing constituency. How do you build structures while recognizing that particular individuals might change from project to project or from year to year, so there is some sense of accountability about kids coming back? ’’

Murphy and Cunningham’s (2003, 82) perspective on recruitment fits well with youth-led community organizing:

Serious recruitment takes time, sincerity, respect, good listening, and pa-tience as well as discrete care to ensure diversity of the membership. The

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organizer looks for a latent receptivity in each person being recruited and seeks to provide an ‘‘appropriate incentive’’ to motivate the person [youth] to accept an invitation offered.

These authors also stress, and we strongly concur, the importance of en-gendering and spreading a vision (mental picture) of a transformed com-munity that embraces all within its boundaries.

Goals of Participation

Only recently has civic activism focused on themes of change for social and economic justice related to youth development, but in doing so, it has im-portant implications for recruitment (Wheeler 2003, 195):

While theory supports the merging of civic activism and youth devel-opment practice, the truth of the matter—capacity at the community level—is that they have tended to be ships passing in the night. Civic activists and youth development practitioners, with some notable ex-ceptions, rarely collaborate or share strategies. Moreover, adults need to serve as youth development practitioners, while youth and young adults prefer to participate in civic activism.

Wheeler (2003) makes an important distinction—namely, that young people generally are more comfortable with an activist approach than are adults. Adults may well prefer a traditional view of development for both youth and community. As a result, youth-led community organizing has a distinct advantage in recruiting marginalized urban youth over more con-ventional youth-development programs that stress individual change at the expense of community capacity enhancement.

LISTEN, Inc. (2003) raises a number of key elements that aid in the con-ceptualization and implementation of targeted recruitment strategies that benefit disenfranchised youth by connecting their public and private lives. For example, youth organizing allows young people to find companionship, structure their lives, and discover a critical framework for analyzing and understanding their world, as well as developing collective power in the process.

The recruitment phase should be considered both strategic in nature and labor-intensive in effort. Effective recruitment, as any experienced practi-tioner would agree, is never a mystery. It necessitates a multi-prong cam-paign that gets the right message out in compelling language to the target population with the proper personnel carrying out the effort. Although youth-led organizing projects use various methods to achieve this aim, good recruitment invariably involves person-to-person contacts with young people and possibly their families. Face-to-face interactions are particularly necessary during the development of a new program or initiative, as are efforts to reach newcomer communities, when personal contact is necessary to obtain buy-in from parents. However, the recruitment of youth orga-

RECRUITMENT, SCREENING, PREPARATION, AND SUPPORT

nizers does not have to be exclusively carried out within the neighborhood or in the institutions that typically serve the community, such as schools. For example, Youth Force actively recruits in juvenile detention centers (Alexander 2001).

Local circumstances or local context exerts a tremendous influence on recruitment and development strategies, as in the case of Youth United for Community Action (YUCA):

YUCA discovered that many membership recruitment and development strategies work only for a particular context, community and constitu-ency. In Los Angeles, for instance, offering in-house academic and tu-toring support are effective, as few services are available to supplement an under-resourced, overcrowded public school system. Lee notes, however, that the strategy is not relevant for East Palo Alto, where students are bused to more affluent neighboring cities with relatively well-financed schools and a nearby university supplies a plethora of tutoring programs. (Weiss 2003, 83)

Pancer (2001) notes that youth participation and engagement is best conceptualized in three distinct stages, with each phase presenting a unique set of rewards and challenges for an organization:

1. The initiation stage (recruitment and exploration), characterized by a set of youth expectations and activities that result in youth ex-ploring the benefits of participation.

2. The sustainment stage, characterized by an extended period of time during which youth actively participate after the initial experimen-tation stage.

3. The post-termination phase, which attempts to keep youth in-volved after their contract period of participation is completed.

Clearly, each of these phases is critical and necessitates staff with dif-ferent skills and varied activities to ensure accomplishment of the goals. Each stage also involves different time periods and requires development of particular resources. These phases, of course, are influenced by local cir-cumstances and the organization’s history of sponsoring youth organizing programs.

Challenges

To say that the initial or recruitment phase simply takes care of itself would be a serious mistake on the part of the organization sponsoring the activity. Recruitment in youth-led organizing is equal in importance to its adult counterpart; however, it brings challenges and rewards usually not asso-ciated with adult-led campaigns. Some in the field would argue that this phase is the most critical because it ultimately decides who will receive

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