Грамматический материал

Грамматический материал

Оборот there is, there are.

1. Если мы указываем местонахождение определенного, известного собеседнику предмета (лица), т. е. когда мы как бы отвечаем на вопрос: Где находится данный предмет? (Где книга? Книга на столе.), то в английском языке употребляется предложение типа "The book is on the table".

Если же мы сообщаем о наличии какого-то неизвестного собеседнику предмета (лица) в определенном месте, т. е. когда мы как бы отвечаем на вопрос: Что имеется в данном месте? (Что на столе? На столе книга.), то в английском языке употребляется оборот there is, there are со значением имеется, есть, находится. В этих предложениях to be является сказуемым, а предмет (лицо) — подлежащим. В русском языке такие предложения обычно начинаются с обстоятельства места:

There is a book on the table. На столе есть книга. There are two patients in the ward В палате двое больных. There’s ice on the lake. На озере лед.

Подлежащее в предложении с оборотом there is, there are употребляется либо без артикля, либо с неопределенным артиклем.

2. Вопросительная форма строится путем постановки личной формы глагола to be перед there:

Is there anybody at home? Кто-нибудь есть дома? Is there a book on the table? На столе есть книга? Are there patients in the ward? В палате есть больные?

3. Отрицательная форма строится при помощи отрицательного местоимения nо, которое ставится после личной формы глагола to be. Употребление nо исключает употребление артикля:

There is no book on the table. На столе нет книги. There are no patients in the ward. В палате нет больных.

4. Краткий утвердительный ответ на вопрос, содержащий оборот there is, there are, состоит из слов yes, there и глагола to be в соответствующем числе:

Is there a book on the table? Yes, there is. На столе есть книга? Да.

Are there books on the table? Yes, there are. На столе есть книги? Да.

5. В кратком отрицательном ответе добавляется отрицание not:

Is there a table in the room? В комнате есть стол?

No, there is not. Нет.

В разговорной речи употребляется сокращенная отрицательная форма: there isn't ['iznt], there aren't ['a:nt].

***

ВОПРОСЫ ПО ТЕМЕ ЗАНЯТИЯ

1. What kinds of bones is the skeleton made of?

2. Is the backbone the most important part of the body?

3. What classes do the naturalists divide all the animals into?

4. What does the skull include?

5. The bones of the trunk include the spinal column, the ribs and the breastbone, don’t they?

6. How does the wrist work?

7. What does the spinal canal contain?

8. What role do the ribs play?

9. What are the functions of the skeleton?

10. What are the diseases the skeleton can be affected by?

ТЕСТОВЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ ПО ТЕМЕ С ЭТАЛОНАМИ ОТВЕТОВ

1. THE BONES OF THE SPINAL COLUMN ARE CALLED....:

1) vertebrae;

2) shoulders;

3) arms;

4) fingers;

2. THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF EVERY LIVING THING IS....:

1) the body;

2) the cell;

3) the anatomy;

4) the organ;

3. ... IS THE ORGAN OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.:

1) nerve;

2) brain;

3) heart;

4) esophagus;

4. THE PERITONEUM IS THE DOUBLE – FOLDED ... SURROUNDING THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY.:

1) jaw;

2) blood;

3) membrane;

4) list;

5. NERVE TISSUE CONDUCTS ... ALL OVER THE BODY.:

1) microorganisms;

2) impulses;

3) food;

4) blood;

6. THE BONES FORM THE ... OF THE BODY.:

1) framework;

2) arm;

3) leg;

4) skull;

7. THE BONES OF THE ... INCLUDE THE SPINAL COLUMN, THE RIBS AND THE BREAST BONE.:

1) trunk;

2) elbow;

3) leg;

4) skull;

8. THERE IS A NUMBER OF MOVABLE ... IN THE SKULL.:

1) frameworks;

2) arms;

3) ribs;

4) bones;

9. THE ARM ... THE BODY AT THE SHOULDER.:

1) excludes;

2) includes;

3) joins;

4) makes up;

10. THE SPINAL COLUMN … VERTEBRAE.:

1) divides;

2) contains;

3) separates;

4) constitutes;

Дополните фразы, используя Рast Simple указанных глаголов:

clean finish happen live smoke start stay want divide begin break watch

1. Yesterday evening I ………… television.

2. I………… my teeth three times yesterday.

3. Bernard ………… 20 cigarettes yesterday evening.

4. The concert last night ………… at 7.30 and ………… at 10 o’clock.

5. The accident ………… last Sunday afternoon.

6. When I was a child, I ………… to be a doctor.

7. Mozart ………… from 1756 to 1791.

8. Naturalists ………… all animals into two classes.

9. We ………… at a very good hotel.

10. We ………… to study skeleton.

11. The student………… his arm in an accident.

The human skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and supplemented by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. Fused bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium. Osteocytes are present in the bone matrix. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts are present at the edges of bone matrix and are involved with bone matrix production and absorption respectively. Bones all have an arterial blood supply, venous drainage and nerves. The non-articular surfaces of bones are covered with a tough fibrous layer called the periosteum, and the articular surfaces of bones are covered with a smooth layer of articular cartilage. Spaces within some bones, generally the larger bones, are filled with bone marrow responsible for generation of blood cells, known as haematopoiesis.

Early in gestation, a foetus has a cartilaginous skeleton from which the long bones and most other bones gradually form throughout the remaining gestation period and for years after birth in a process called endochondral ossification. The flat bones of the skull and the clavicles are formed from connective tissue in a process known as intramembranous ossification, and ossification of the mandible occurs in the fibrous membrane covering the outer surfaces of Meckel's cartilages. At birth a newborn baby has approximately 300 bones, whereas on average an adult human has 206 bones (these numbers can vary slightly from individual to individual). The difference comes from a number of small bones that fuse together during growth, such as the sacrum and coccyx of the vertebral column. The sacrum (the bone at the base of the spine) consists of five bones which are separate at birth but fuse together into a solid structure in later years. An infant is born with zones of cartilage, called epiphyseal plates, between segments of bone to allow further growth. Growing is usually completed between ages 13 and 18, at which time the epiphyseal plates of long bones close allowing no further growth.

The skeleton has six main functions:

1. Provide shape and support The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body, and maintains its shape. The joints between bones permit movement.

2. Attachment The bones of the skeleton provide an attachment surface for muscles and tendons which together enable movement of the body. Ligaments often connect bones across a joint to provide stability. Microscopic fibres called Sharpie's fibres connect teeth to the bone of their sockets.

3. Movement Movement in vertebrates is dependent on the skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton by tendons. Without the skeleton to give leverage, movement would be greatly restricted.

4. Protection The skeleton protects many vital organs: The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the ears, the spine protects the spinal cord, the ribs, spine, and sternum protect the lungs and the heart, the clavicle and scapula protect the shoulder, the ilium and spine protect the digestive and urogenital systems and the hip, the patella and the ulna protect the elbow and the knee, and the carpals and tarsals protect the wrist and ankle.

5. Blood cell production The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis – the generation of blood cells, which takes place in red bone marrow.

6. Storage Bone also serves as a mineral storage deposit in which nutrients can be stored and retrieved. Calcium, especially, can be released by dissolution of bone tissue under the control of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (a form of vitamin D) during periods of low calcium intake.

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