REARRANGEMENT

The main translator’s task is to transform the source language text, changing it so that it would perform the same communicative function in the target language and culture. Therefore the aim of translation is in transforming the text so that the message produced by translator has the same effect upon the target language reader (listener) as it has upon the source language reader (listener). Translation is an informational process, which means that translator should render information transmitted as fully as possible. However, this can be achieved only if certain structural and semantic changes are introduced. These changes, which are caused by lexical and grammatical differences between languages (and broadly speaking - by the differences between the respective cultures), are called transformations in translation.

The notion of transformation is defined differently in translation studies. Here are some of the definitions.

Vilen Naumovich Komissarov defines translational (interlinguistic) transformations as changes that can help you make the transition from source units to target units according to the meaning stated. Translation transformations, in his opinion, have the formal-semantic nature, transforming both the form and meaning of the initial units. That is, according to V.N. Komissarov, translation transformation are the methods of translation, which can be used to translate various originals in cases when there is no dictionary match or such a match can’t be used in the specific context.

Leonid Stepanovich Barkhudarov understands the term “transformation” as a certain relationship between the two language or speech units, one of which is the initial, and the second is created on its basis, while the term “translational transformations” as the numerous and diverse cross-language changes that are made to achieve translation equivalence ("translation adequacy") in spite of divergence in the formal and semantic systems of the two languages. L. Barkhudarov in his works notes that:

• term transformation can’t be taken literally, because the initial text doesn’t "transform" in the sense that it doesn’t change by itself ;

• the original remains unchanged, but on its basis a text in another language is created with the help of certain translational transformations;

• translation is interlingual transformation.

Yakov Iosifovich Retsker defines transformations as a) techniques of logical thinking with the help of which the translator explains the meaning of the foreign word in context and finds its correspondence in target language, which does not coincide and b) sentence structure transformations during the translation process in accordance with the norms of target language.

The attempt to comprehend interlingual transformations theoretically was first made by Retsker in 1950. He divided the translational transformation into:

• Lexical;

• Grammatical.

All grammatical transformations he divided into:

• Parts of speech replacement;

• Parts of sentence replacement.

Retsker states that the transformation can be full or partial. Usually, when the main parts of a sentence are replaced, a full transformation occurs, and if only minor parts of the sentence are replaced, a partial transformation occurs.

While speaking of grammatical transformations, he noted that they are usually combined with lexical. In many cases, a sentence structure change is caused by lexical, not grammatical reasons. Since communicative load of a sentence often requires a careful choice of words to get the correct and accurate reflection in the translation, then the resolution of the translation problem also depends on the right choice of word form, its grammar category. Replacing English verb with Ukrainian noun may entail changing the whole structure of the sentence. Yet, from a practical point of view, not to mention the theoretical, it is advisable to consider grammatical transformations separately, abstracting from lexical meaning of structures.

Grammatical correspondences between languages of different systems in most cases can only be functional, depending on a number of variables. But even when, considering all factors, the optimal sentence structure is found in translation, there is the important question of choosing the best word order, or rather, the parts of the sentence order.

Professional qualified translation begins at the stage when a sentence in a foreign language is comprehended, and therefore, its grammatical structure is disclosed. The similarity between the syntactic constructions in English, on the one hand, and Ukrainian, on the other, often enables a literal translation: without changing the sentence structure and without a significant change of word order. However, under the influence of various factors, translator has to resort to grammatical transformations, the most important of which consist of full or partial sentence reconstruction, parts of speech and parts of sentence substitution. Often the transformation is needed even though there is a similar structure in target language.

Grammatical forms of different languages only very seldom coincide fully as to the scope of their meaning and function. As a rule, there is only partial equivalence, that is, the grammatical meanings expressed by grammatical forms, though seemingly identical in two different languages, coincide only in part of their meaning and differ in other parts of the same meanings. Thus, for instance, the category of number of nouns in English and in Ukrainian seems to coincide and, indeed, does coincide in many cases: table - стіл, tables - столи, etc.

However, it should be born in mind that the content which in one language is expressed grammatically may be expressed lexically in another language. If no grammatical forms are available in the TL, the translator must look for lexical means to render the same semantic content.

On the whole the choice of the grammatical equivalent in the TL is determined by the following factors:

• The meaning inherent in the grammatical form

• The lexical nature of the word or word-group used in this or that form.

• Factors of style: for instance, both English and Ukrainian have the Passive form of the verb. However, in Ukrainian it is not used that frequently as in English where the Passive Voice is a marker of formal style.

• Frequency of use.

Speaking about this factor, the American linguist and translator E. Nida writes: "Rare forms of words may also constitute serious obstacles to a proper communication load. For example, both source and target languages may have passive forms of words but in the source language they may be relatively frequent while in the target language they are rare. If under these considerations one attempts to translate every source language passive by corresponding passive in the target language, the result will be an inevitable overloading of the communication."

By the way, who is Eugine Nida? What has he elaborated?

Grammatical structures of two languages are different to such an extent that word-for-word translation is doomed to failure. In the course of translation, it is necessary to perform various grammatical and lexical changes of translation to achieve translation equivalence.

During the translation, grammatical form and syntax structure are not seen as something separate, in isolation from their lexical content. However, a variety of grammatical means enables their use to highlight and strengthen certain elements of speech. This is achieved not only by emphatic sentence structure, but also by the choice of a particular structure type, which creates the most advantageous conditions for the most striking expressions of thought.

Now, let us discuss a notion of structural and connotative realia. Structural and connotative realia have more generalized character, they are more limited, and they cannot be rendered fully by means of the target language like lexical realia. If there are nine ways to render the semantic and stylistic features of realia in the target language, a structural and connotative realia is not translated at all or translators look for analogue on grammatical or lexical levels, or they use the most common method of rendering - contextual and functional compensation.

Obviously, the methods and techniques of rendering Ukrainian structural and connotative realia into English will change in the course of time as new translations with higher quality will appear. Perhaps in the future translators will find potential methods in order to reproduce some structural connotative Ukrainian realia by means of English language. However, it does not mean that we cannot translate such realia at least partially in case of absence of grammatical or word-formative means.

Prof. Zorivchak R. P. gives a definition of such realia: structural and connotative realia – are used to indicate the forms that reflect the structural and connotative peculiarities of the source language and do not have any direct correspondences in target language, that is, specifically marked grammatical and word-forming connotations that convey secondary information and they contain an artistic and aesthetic expression.

Let us have a look at the one example of such structural and connotative realia. In the works of Ukrainian literature on rural themes, in folk songs and in spoken language, we can find personal names of women with suffix – иха, which are formed from the name, surname or nickname of a woman or man, for example,

“Ні, не просила Левчиха”, “Ой, росте, росте червона калина, Ще й похилилися квіти, Ой, зосталася сотничка Харчиха, Ще й маленькії діти”.

Such word-formations with the suffix - иха create the connotation of closeness and they are Ukrainian structural and connotative realia for English language. It is understandable that translator can use only a contextual compensation of the structural and connotative realia. In translation this is often omitted or transcribed just like in the following example:

“І бабка Грициха скаржилася”

“And old Hritsikha complained”.

One more example of structural connotative realia is O. Dovzhenko’s novel “Мати”:

“Господи, синочки, йдіть мерщій”.

A. Bilenko adequately reproduced it in the translation with help of the diminutive suffix -y and the word “Lord” that has connotative potential:

“Lordy, in with you, quick”.

Among Ukrainian structural-connotative realia belongs Praesens Historicum. In the Ukrainian artistic works, especially in prose, the language usage is significantly higher than in English, where it is used relatively rarely, and in Ukrainian language it creates a structural connotative realia. These Ukrainian structural connotative realia are rendered into English with the help of extended tense forms that create an emotional connotation, visibility and intensity, for example,

“Час іде. Наближається година рушати в дорогу... Із моря звуків прорвався і пролунав над людьми різкий, суворий голос...”

“Time was passing. The hour to leave was approaching fast…Cutting through the sea of sound and echoing over the heads of the throng came a resonant, stern voice…”

On the other hand, the Ukrainian language does not have such system of tenses like English. Extended tense forms with their higher degree of explicitness and stylistic load – these are English structural and connotative realia for Ukrainian language.

English absolute constructions – gerundival, participial, with or without a preposition – in a certain context obtain adherent seme of "expressiveness" and "emotionality". Therefore, in translation they are used for compensation. In the novel “На чужину” by V. Vasylchenko we have a sentence:

«Сивий чуб його має в повітрі, з очей котяться сльози».

In translation, we have an absolute construction that has a significant stylistic potential:

“His grey hair lifted in the breeze, the tears streaming down his cheeks.”

Rather free word order in Ukrainian language gives a possibility of repetition that creates a smooth narration - it is also structural and connotative realia for English. The repetition is used in "Пилипко" by A. Golovko, depicting a portrait of a hero:

“А ще — сорочечка, штанці на ньому із семірки, полатані-полатані”.

In its English translation by T. Evans the author preserved a repetition, moreover, he used a word “over” which is quite adequate in this case:

“He wore a shirt and a pair of rough homespun pants patched over and over.”

In the Ukrainian language the address exists in two morphological forms: nominative and vocative case. Vocative case has the inherent grammatical connotation where the seme of “addressness” conveys the connotation of intimacy, credulity, immediacy and expressiveness. Sometimes the translation of Ukrainian addresses some compensation takes place due the personal pronoun “you” and “-ing” form, for example:

“Дівчино! Чародійська появо!” –скрикнув він.

“Oh you girl! You bewitching apparition!” he exclaimed.

Addresses are translated into English with the help of transliteration:

“Мамо, матінко моя, де ви?... Де ви, голубко, матінко моя сива? ... Прощайте, мамо...”

“Mamo, where are you?.. Mamo, mother darliing, where are you?...Farewell Mamo!”

Now let us move to the grammatical transformations. As has been said, divergences in the structures of the two languages are so considerable that in the process of translation various grammatical and lexical transformations are indispensable to achieve equivalence. These transformations may be divided into four types: 1) Rearrangement (Partition, Integration, Transposition); 2) replacements; 3) additions; 4) omissions.

It should be born in mind that this classification is, to some extent, arbitrary and in practice it is hardly possible to find these elementary transformations in a "pure form". In most cases they are combined with one another, so that what we observe is a combined use of more than one type of transformation: transposition and replacement, addition and omission at the same time, etc. Moreover, they are accompanied by lexical transformations as well.

REARRANGEMENT

In rearrangement we may single out the first transformation – it is partitioning. Sentence partitioning can be of two types:

· When a simple sentence in the source text is translated with a complex sentence (with some clauses):

I want you to understand this transformation.

Я хочу, щоб ви зрозуміли цю трансформацію.

This is an internal partition.

· When a simple sentence in the source text is rendered by several independent sentences in the target text for structural, semantic or stylistic reasons:

Моя машина не завелася, тому я не змогла заїхати за вами. –

My car wouldn’t start. Therefore, I couldn’t pick you up.

This is an external partition.

The next one is integration. Sentence integration is a contrary transformation to the previous. It takes place when we make one sentence out of two or more, or convert a complex sentence into a simple one:

If one knows languages, one can come out on top.

Знаючи мови, можна багато чого досягти.

In ancient Rome, garlic was believed to make people courageous. Roman soldiers, therefore, ate large quantities of it before a battle.

Перед боєм римсьі воїни зїдали велику кількість часнику, оскільки в Стародавньому Римі вважали, що часник робить людей більш мужніми.

And finally transposition may be defined as a change in the order of linguistic elements: words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Their order in the TL text may not correspond to that in the SL text. Most often this change of order is made necessary due to the necessity of preserving intact what is called functional sentence perspective, namely, the division of the sentence into two main parts from the point of view of communication: “theme” and “rheme”.

Probably, you have heard about these notions and can you explain them to me?

In Ukrainian this division of the sentence is usually expressed by means of word order: what is already known or supposed to be known to the hearer, that is, "theme" is placed at the beginning of the sentence whereas what is new, that is communicated for the first time and, therefore, what forms the semantically most important part of the message (rheme) is placed at the end of the sentence.

In English the word order is arranged, on the whole, along the same lines; however, in certain cases the "theme" is placed at the end and the "rheme", correspondingly, at the beginning of the sentence, due to the fact that the newness of the "rheme" is expressed differently, namely, by the use of the indefinite article (or with plural forms of nouns and with uncountable nouns of the zero article) with the noun which is the subject of sentence.

The next grammatical transformation is REPLACEMENT or SUBSTITUTION.

Replacements are by far the most common type of grammatical transformations. Replacements can affect practically all types of linguistic units: word forms, part of speech, sentence elements, sentence types, types of syntactic relations, etc.

a) word forms

Replacement of word forms is quite common in translation. However, there are many instances where this is not the case, in other words, where an English plural form is rendered through a Ukrainian singular form and vice versa; this is especially common among those nouns that have only a singular and plural form whose distribution is often arbitrary and motivated only historically, (oats - овес, cherries - вишня, measles - кір, money - гроші) This type of grammatical transformations is characterized by the translator's refusal to use analogous grammatical units in TL.

The struggles of the Indian people in all parts of the USA.

Боротьба жителів Індії відбувається у всіх частина США

They left the room with their heads held high

Вони вийшли з кімнати з високо піднятою головою

b) parts of speech

This type of replacement is also fairly common. Especially typical is the replacement of English noun (derived from verbs) by Ukrainian verbs; English makes a far greater use of the so called nominalization.

“Why is he weeping?” - asked a little green Lizard, as he ran past him with his tail in the air.

“Чому він плаче?” – запитала маленька зелена ящірка, яка проповзала повз нього, помахуючи хвостиком.

The replacement of English pronoun by Ukrainian noun is also common:

I took possession of his effects after his death, I explained. They were done up in a parcel and I was directed to give them to you.

«Все, що лишилось від нього після смерті, віддали мені», - пояснив я. «Листи та портсигар були загорнуті в пакет. На ньому було написано: передати особисто леді Калстеллан».

c) sentence elements

This is something referred to as syntactic restructuring of the sentence in the process of translation. It consists of changing the sentence functions of words in a sentence, a process which is preserving the functional sentence perspective. In English, as in Ukrainian the “theme” is generally (with some exceptions) placed at the beginning of the sentence; however, this place is, of course, reserved for the sentence subject, the result being that the "theme" of the English sentence is, as a rule, also its subject, though semantically it is not always the doer of the action expressed by the predicate verbs: it may be its object (goal) or even may denote some adverbial relation (time, place, cause, etc.). In Ukrainian the word order is relatively free, therefore, the first word or word group within a sentence (its theme) must not necessarily be at the same time its syntactic subject.

He was met by his sister.

Його зустріла сестра.

The last week saw an intensification of diplomatic activity.

Минулого тижня спостерігалась активізація дипломатичної діяльності.

The crash killed 20 people.

В результаті катастрофи загинуло 20 людей.

d) sentence types

A very common transformation in the process of translation is the replacement of a simple sentence by a complex one and vice versa. Thus, while translating from English into Ukrainian it often becomes necessary to render English structures with nonfinite verbal forms by means of subordinate clauses, thus turning a simple sentence into complex, as, for instance:

I want you to speak English.

Я хочу, щоб ви говорили на англійській мові.

I heard my mother go out and close the door.

Я чула, як мама вийшла з кімнати і зачинила двері.

e) types of syntactic relations

From the purely grammatical point of view this transformation is optional; however, taking into consideration what was said concerning the relative frequency of grammatical forms.

Such transformations are necessary if we want to make our translation sound natural, that is, if we want to avoid undesirable heaviness.

All I have in it is two dresses and my moccasins and my underwear and socks and some other things.

Все, що я маю це дві сукні, мокасини, білизну, шкарпетки та інші дрібнички.

In the original, the conjunction "and" is used four times while in the Ukrainian translation it appears only once, before the last constituent, the rest being joined asyndetically.

The third type of transformation is ADDITION.

The tendency towards compression both in the grammatical and the lexical systems of the English language often makes additions necessary and indispensable. It should be stressed once more that additions accompany transpositions and replacements. Sometimes additions are required by pragmatic considerations, e.g.:

Pay claim – вимога підвищення заробітної плати, Welfare cuts – урізання бюджетних асигнувань на соціальні потреби; Gun license – дозвіл на володіння вогнепальною зброєю.

Attributive groups are another case in point. The elements forming such groups vary in number, their translation into Ukrainian as a rule requires additions, e.g.:

Jobs-for-youth Club – клуб, що ставить за мету забезпечити молодь роботою.

The decoding of an attributive group, however, does not always involve additions, but merely transpositions and replacements, e.g.:

A million pound forged bank draft fraud.

Афера з підробленим векселем на мільйон фунтів стерлінгів.

The forth type is OMISSION. Omission acts in the opposite direction to addition and is used to ensure a greater degree of what is called “compression”, that is reducing the redundancy of the text by omitting words which can be easily restored from the context, e.g.:

For the fishermen of Rebun, the notion that young outsiders may choose to adopt their way of life is both fascinating and perplexing.

Рибалкам острову Ребун здається дивним і незвичайним, що приїжджа молодь може віддати перевагу їх способу життя.

Two omissions have been made here. The meaning of the word “notion” is implied in the predicate of the Ukrainian sentence and this word can safely be left out. The verb “to choose” and “to adopt” may be regarded as synonymous and the meaning of these two verbs is fully covered by the Ukrainian “віддати перевагу” which implies choice.

The next point in our plan is translation of different grammatical phenomena.

One of the grammar challenges in translating from English, and especially into English, is the article, since this category doesn’t exist in the Ukrainian language.

The categories of definiteness and indefiniteness are universal but the ways and means of expressing these notions vary in different languages.

In English this function is fulfilled by the articles whereas in Ukrainian – by word order. Both the definite and indefinite articles in English are meaningful and their meanings and their functions cannot be ignored in translation.

In translation of articles we may use a transposition. Every utterance falls into two parts – the theme and rheme. We have already discussed it. Thus, the theme is the starting point of the utterance and as such it can sometimes introduce a new subject about which the rheme gives some information. In this case the indefinite article is used to indicate indefiniteness. The theme usually occupies the initial position in the sentence. The theme in the English language with its fixed word order usually coincides with the grammatical subject of the sentence. When the theme again occurs in the text it is preceded by the definite article.

A lady entered the compartment. The lady sat down in the corner seat.

У купе увійшла пані. Пані сіла в кутку біля вікна. (P.G.Wodehouse).

The categories of indefiniteness and definiteness are expressed by the indefinite and the definite articles respectively and these categories are rendered by word order in translation.

When the articles are charged with some other meanings apart from the categories of definiteness and indefiniteness lexical means come into play in translation.

If these meanings are not rendered lexically, the Ukrainian sentence is semantically incomplete. The article in the numeric function retains its historical meaning of “one”:

I’ll be back in a minute.

Я повернусь через (одну) хвилину.

It is a replacement of the part of speech. Thus, lexical compensators of the classifying article might be as follows: один з, якийсь, дехто, один, такий. This variant of transformation concerns indefinite article.

Practically, definite articles are translated with the same type of transformation, that is, replacement. The definite article specifies the definite object, either known to the speaker and listener or inferred from the situation. In this case it is often compensated by a Ukrainian pronoun цей, той, той самий, e.g.:

Here is the man we are looking for.

Ось цей чоловік, якого ми шукаємо.

However, we may use a replacement (substitution) of articles. Definite articles help to designate a class as a whole. As such it is often translated by substituting the noun in the singular with that in the plural, e.g.:

The olive grows only in warm climates.

Оливки ростуть тільки в теплому кліматі.

The next grammatical category that we should discuss is system of tenses. It is translated mainly by replacement. English Simple (Indefinite) tenses denoting regular, permanent actions correspond to the Ukrainian imperfective aspect, e.g.:

Water boils at 100º Centigrade.

Вода кипить при 100ºC.

When expressing an action as a single fact, a Simple tense corresponds to the Ukrainian perfective form:

When I heard the news, I walked faster and faster.

Коли я почула цю новину, я пішла швидшим кроком.

Progressive tenses, denoting temporary continuous actions, correspond to the Ukrainian imperfective form:

He first became interested in drama when he was working abroad.

Він вперше зацікавився драматургією, коли працював за кордомном.

English Perfect forms, when expressing a completed action, correspond to Ukrainian perfective verbs:

I haven’t finished yet.

Я ще не закінчила.

To render the meaning of completion expressed by the Perfect verb, a translator has to use the technique of compensation and extension (that is, addition) by introducing adverbs implying completion: вже, ще, etc. Therefore, there is no need, when translating from Ukrainian into English the sentence Я вже прочитав цю книжку, to use the adverb already. I have read the book is enough to express the completed action.

There is also asymmetry in expressing tense distinctions in English and Ukrainian. Ukrainian future tenses correspond to English present tense forms in adverbial clauses:

Якщо він прийде, я дам вам знати.

If he comes, I’ll let you know.

Here also takes place a replacement.

Now let us move to the translations of grammatical constructions. It is impossible to warn a beginner against all possible difficulties. However, it seems reasonable to point out some English constructions that are most likely to cause trouble.

Most frequent among them are the so-called absolute constructions. There are two main difficulties in dealing with them: first of all they are not always easy to recognize. It is something that happens in connection with the main action, but still "outside" it. Unlike subordinate clauses, absolute constructions are characterized by rather vague semantic connection with the main body of the sentence. It is often hard to say if the construction indicates time or cause of the main action - it may indicate them indiscriminately. They usually single out four structural types of absolute constructions: 1) nominative participial constructions; 2) nominative constructions without a participle; 3) participial constructions without the subject; 4) absolute constructions with the preposition "with". Knowing these structural types, it is easier to identify such a construction and differentiate it from expanded secondary parts of the sentence. There are some possibilities in translating absolute constructions, though they do not directly correspond to the four types of constructions themselves.

• If the type of semantic connection between the absolute construction and the main body of the sentence is more or less definite, a subordinate clause may be used in translation:

“... those things having been invariably found on Mr. Twain's person ... they felt compelled to give him a friendly admonition.” (Mark Twain)

"... і оскільки ці речі згодом незмінно виявлялися у містера Твена, ... вони вважали своїм обов'язком дати йому дружні настанови."

In such case we use addition.

• Being very close functionally to English absolute constructions, Ukrainian adverbial-participial constructions are more limited in usage, since the action indicated by them should always be performed by the subject of the sentence, which is not necessarily the case with English absolute constructions. If neither a subordinate clause nor an adverbial-participial construction can be chosen for translation, an absolute construction can be rendered by a separate sentence or an independent clause joint by co-ordination:

"Miss Arundell walked home, Bob trotting sedately at her heels…"

"Міс Аренделл пішла додому, і Боб спокійно побіг за нею." (A.Christie)

Here can be used an integration of the sentence or internal partition.

• Finally, an absolute construction can be translated with the help of a Ukrainian prepositional phrase with the preposition "з":

"Coffee-cup in hand, Mr Scogan was standing in front of the ... bookshelf" (A.Huxley) –

"Містер Скоуген з чашкою в руках стояв перед ... книжною полицею."

It should be noted, however, that such phrases are practically never employed to translate English absolute constructions with the preposition "with". This type of transformation is addition.

The next are causative constructions. First of all, they have the general meaning of making somebody do something or causing some action, effect, etc. It is necessary to remember that besides the typical causative constructions with the verbs "to make", "to force", "to cause" and constructions with the verbs "to have” and "to get" ("to have somebody do something", "to get somebody to do something", "to have, get something done"), there exists another way of expressing this meaning: to Verb + smb + into + smth (or doing smth), out of as in "to talk somebody into (out of) something" - "умовити (відмовити) когось робити щось". Generally speaking, translation of specifically English grammatical constructions consists of understanding their meaning and finding a corresponding way of expressing it in Ukrainian. It is not the grammatical form but the grammatical meaning that is of primary concern for a translator or an interpreter.

For a translator, the have/get constructions are of special interest, since their meaning may be ambiguous. The difference between the get – and have constructions is both formal and semantic. The get construction is used with the particle to, whereas the have construction requires a bare infinitive: e. g.

I love canaries, but how can I get them to sing?

They usually have the gardener mow the lawn on Fridays.

The get construction, as compared with the have construction, suggests that the subject has to persuade someone to perform a certain action:

How did you get your husband to cut off his beard?

Як тобі вдалося вмовити чоловіка збрити бороду?

The translation of these constructions depends on the context. Often the causal relations are implied but not expressed overtly in Ukrainian:

Get a fire to burn.

Розпали вогонь.

I can’t get the car to start.

Не можу завести свою машину.

In this case, a contextual replacement (substitution) takes place. The have/get constructions can be causative and non-causative. Causative:

He forced me to give him the information.

Він змусим мене дати йому цю інформацію.

In such sentences, the subject usually denotes someone who orders the action expressed by the participle. In a non-causative construction, the sentence subject denotes either a sufferer or a performer of the action expressed by the participle. Thus the construction implies some state:

We had our car stolen.

У нас вкрали машину.

While talking about grammatical constructions we can’t ignore passive forms. Those must be mentioned because English and Ukrainian passive forms are different both in type of form constructions and in frequency. English passive voice is used more frequently due to the various types of construction it occurs in.

One of the obstacles lies in the fact that not all English passive constructions can be transformed into Ukrainian passive, since the verb transitivity in English and Ukrainian does not coincide and we have to resort to addition, namely addition of prepositions. Cf. to enter the room – війти в кімнату, to join the party – вступити в партію, to follow somebody – слідувати за кимось, to attend the meeting – бути присутнім на зборах, to influence somebody – впливати на когсь.

The next morning this event was reported by all the papers.

Наступного ранку про цю подію повідомили всі газети.

Care should be taken when translating English parallel passive verbs, since they may correspond in Ukrainian to the verbs of different cases: He was trusted and respected. – Йому довіряли і його поважали. In this case the Ukrainian sentence requires repetition of the pronominal object (йому-його); otherwise, the sentence would sound grammatically incorrect (*Йому довіряли і поважали). Once again we see that the successful translation is realized with the help of addition.

One major challenge of translating is the English “double passive”. It takes place when the main predicate is used in the passive voice and the following infinitive is also passive:

The treaty is reportedto have been signed by both parties.

In translation, the predicate can be substituted by the active verb:

Повідомляють, що договір вже підписаний обома сторонами.

The principal clause can also be substituted by a parenthetical one:

Як повідомляють, договір вже підписаний обома сторонами.

Or the passive infinitive can be substituted for the active one, so that the sentence subject turns into the sentence object:

The prisoners were ordered to be shot.

Було наказано розстріляти полонених.

Finally, there might be a substitution by the noun:

The music is intended to be played on the piano.

Музика призначена для гри на фортепіано.

It’s the example which vividly underscores that transformations are often used together: here we see replacement of parts of speech paired with transposition.

Another widespread grammatical construction is the infinitive. The challenges in translating are due to its specific forms, functions and structures.

English infinitive functions can be a stumbling block for a fledgling translator. To cope with the task of infinitive translation we usually resort to preposition addition and replacement, mostly of parts of speech.

The attributive function of the infinitive can cause difficulties in translation due to its modal meaning:

This is a book to read.

Ось книга, яку можна (потрібно) почитати.

The type of modal meaning can be seen from the context:

When nature has work to be done, she creates a genius to do it. (Emerson) –

Коли природі належить щось зробити, вона створює генія, який може зробити це.

The function of some adverbial infinitives presents difficulties in translation. For example, the English infinitive can be used to denote a subsequent event or a parallel action, which is often confused with the infinitive of purpose:

Iron combines with oxygen to form rust.

Залізо з'єднується з киснем і утворює іржу.

The infinitive in this function is usually rendered by a parallel finite verb:

In some rooms, the mold grew thickly halfway down a wall, only to stop in a sharp horizontal line, as if cut by a knife.

У деяких кімнатах цвіль густо покривала півстіни, і різко переривалася, немов ножем була проведена горизонтальна лінія..

This infinitive should be distinguished from the infinitive of purpose:

Live not to eat, but eat to live.

Живи не для того, щоб їсти, але їж для того, щоб жити.

When translating the infinitive of result, a translator should take care to render properly the connotation of the construction: the infinitive with too implies a negative meaning, while the infinitive with enough suggests a positive one:

She is too old to go there. – Вона дуже стара і не поїде туди.

She is old enough to go there. – Вона досить доросла і може поїхати туди.

When dealing with the for-to-infinitive construction, a translator substitutes an English simple sentence with a Ukrainian complex one, i.e. s/he does the partitioning of the sentence:

She arranged for the office to be opened by one of the security people.

Вона влаштувала так, що офіс відкрив один з охоронців.

In some cases this type of construction can be rendered by a compound sentence:

He was a very nice fellow, you had only to say you wanted something for him to give it to you.

Він був дуже славний хлопець: варто було вам тільки сказати, що вам щось потрібно, і він тут же давав це вам.

Special difficulties can arise from the Absolute construction with the infinitive. This construction usually has the meaning either of concession or of successive events:

With so much to say, the two said nothing.

І хоча цим двом так багато треба було сказати,вони не сказали нічого.

Another type of constructions is emphatic ones. According to processed material of such scholars as Fiterman, Uspenska, Komissarov, Karaban we came to the conclusion that in English grammar the emphatic constructions can be divided into lexical, constructions which use some lexical means (words or word combinations) to give an expression the affective evaluation; grammatical, constructions which use grammatical means; and lexico-grammatical, constructions which use both lexical and grammatical means. According to the findings of research, grammatical particularly syntactical means dominate in the expression of the emphasis. On the contrary, in Ukrainian grammar lexical means dominate. That is why syntactical emphasis of English sentence is translated with the help of lexical method.

To translate all kinds of emphasis we use different transformations. On the basis of comparative analysis we have found all possible transformations in Ukrainian language and those which are used for translating of emphatic constructions. We arrived to a conclusion that some of them are not used for transferring of emphatic meaning of a sentence. Thus, the following transformation may take place: integration, addition and omission. The classification of transformations that are used for translating of emphatic constructions consists of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical transformations. Lexical ones are the most used and include different changes of lexical units during the translation.

Additionally, it is important to mention types of emphatic constructions.

A. PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

Emphasis on what happened - not who did it.

The hotel will be redecorated by a famous designer

B. FRONTING AND INVERSION

(a) Fronting

We change the word order in a sentence in order to begin with a clause that wouldn't normally come first.

Where the money is coming from, I don't know.

(b) Inversion

Up into the air went the balloons.

C. IT IS/ WAS + NOUN + THAT + WHO + VERB CLAUSE

This structure helps us to emphasize different parts of the sentence. In speech, intonation and pronunciation also identify the emphasis.

Example: Sue borrowed my bike last night

It was Sue who borrowed my bike last night.

It was last night that Sue borrowed my bike.

It was my bike that Sue borrowed last night.

D. WHAT CLAUSES

WHAT + VERB CLAUSE + IS / WAS + NOUN

What you really need is a holiday.

2. Very / Indeed

When used emphatically, "very" means exactly / precisely

At the very same moment, the telephone rang.

It was very cold, indeed!

3. AT ALL / IN THE LEAST / WHATSOEVER / REALLY

(to emphasize negatives)

There was no ticket left at all, whatsoever.

4. THE - used to emphasize uniqueness and heavily stressed in speech

Surely, you don't mean the Julia Roberts!

5. Question words ending in -ever. They add a shade of disbelief.

Whoever told you that?

6. DO / DID - emphasize the verb and are stressed in speech

I do hope you'll come again.

7. ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES

Her performance was sheer magic.

8. Echoing phrases with so

This is the book you're looking for.

So it is!

9. Repetition

David keeps reading the same book over and over again.