LECTURE 6. THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF THE WORD

1. Connotations.

2. Types of connotations.

Connotations.

Семантика – смысловая сторона языка слов, частей слова, словосочетаний, раздел семиотики, изучающий знаковые системы как средства выражения смысла, т. е. правила интерпретации знаков и составленных из них выражений.

Every separate meaning of a word is complex and contains several ingredients. The notional content is expressed by the denotative meaning which names a notion or an object. The connotative meaning implies certain overtones which are superimposed on the main notional content of a word. They are optional and render additional shades of meaning.

It is useful to make a distinction between this kind of “naming” meaning, which is called denotation, and another kind of meaning, which is called connotation (коннотации – дополнительные, сопутствующие значения; то, что подразумевается; добавочные, семантические или стилистические оттенки). Connotation refers to the associations that words can have in our minds.

The denotation of the noun pig is a non-ruminant (не жвачное) omnivorous (всеядное) ungulate (копытное).

For some people, the word pig might have connotations of dirty and smelly; others will think of inquisitive or cheeky (нахальный).

Jose A. Carillo: “A word’s denotation is its literal meaning, while its connotations are the associative or emotional ideas or feelings it evokes. For instance, a flag’s most common denotation is its dictionary definition: “a rectangular piece of fabric of distinctive design that is used as a symbol, as signaling device, or as decoration. ” The flag, of course, has powerful connotations as “patriotism” and “heroism”.

Types of connotations

emotional connotations; we speak about the capacity of a word to evoke or directly express emotion.

e. g. confused, enthusiastic, upset, depressed, cheerful, delighted, frustrated. Oh, I’m so glad! Oh, I am so sorry! Honey, duck (about people).

2. evaluatory connotations; we speak about the capacity of a word to evoke or directly express evaluation: neutral, positive, negative. Approval or disapproval is expressed.

e. g. negative: There are 2, 000 vagrants (бродяги) in the city.

neutral: There are over 2, 000 people with no fixed address in the city.

positive: There are over 2, 000 homeless in the city.

Other examples of evaluatory connotations: obstinate, extravagant, stubborn, inquisitive.

Evaluatory connotations are not thoroughly studied. Some specialists connect evaluatory connotations with emotional ones.

3. expressive (emphatic) connotations intensifying the capacity of a word to directly express intensity.

e. g. too terrible, frightfully well, to slave over smth. “I adore you” instead of “I love you”.

She was a thin, frail, little thing. Thing instead of girl underlines the fact that the girl is fragile, delicate. “Thing” – when we use it and speak about some person, is always used with adjectives.

4. stylistic connotations: the capacity of a word to possess stylistic colouring, when the word itself is suggestive of this or that style.

e. g. shut up (it’s emotional, expressive and evaluative too).

Sometimes a word may have all or several connotations.

Some linguists name seven connotations adding to the above mentioned literary, historical, social.

Girl – neutral (no connotations); maiden – archaic, poetic; lass, lassie – emotional (the words are dialectal); chick, baby – slang (a pretty girl is meant); young lady – ironic.

All the connotations are subdivided into inherent and adherent.

Inherents are those that are always present in a word, inseparable from it.

Adherents appear in speech under the influence of the context.

e. g. clever – inherent (if a person is witty, smart),

adherent (if a person is foolish, and you use the word ‘clever’ ironically).